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NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same time gives you extra points in the form of background information.
General Studies – 1
Introduction
India has a rich heritage of science and technology. The dependence on nature could be overcome by developments in science. In ancient India, religion and science worked in close proximity. India belongs to one of the oldest civilized cultures with a long tradition in science and technology. Her history of science can be studied in a different context compared to that of other modern civilizations
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- Astronomy: Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
- Mathematics: The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras.
- Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers.
- Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry.
- Medicine: From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Varanasi emerged as centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charak Samhita by Charak and Sushrut Samhita by Sushruta.
- Metallurgy: The vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing. By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys like brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done
Linkages between modern sciences and ancient scientific heritage
- Ayurveda: The plants and herbs mentioned in Charaka Samhita is relevant even today and is the foundation of Ayurveda.
- In the last few decades there has been growing interest in alternative forms of therapy globally.
- There are attempts by biomedical and Ayurvedic researchers to correlate Ayurvedic understanding of the nature of disease with modern biomedical concepts
- Yoga: Many western nations have adopted Yoga for mental and physical well-being. More research is being done in this regard.
- Yoga has been found to lessen symptoms of depression and anxiety, ease chronic back pain, lower stress levels, boost brain function and improve heart health.
- Decimal system: What we use as the modern decimal system was compiled in its entirety in India. Although other cultures had introduced some features of the numeric system beforehand, it was completed in India by the 9th century AD.
- Chandrasekhar Limit: Indian Nobel Prize-winning physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovered the calculation used to determine the future of what would happen to a dying star.
- If the star’s mass is less than the Chandrasekhar Limit it will shrink to become a white dwarf, and if it is great the star will explode, becoming a supernova.
- It is said that he was influenced by ancient astronomical texts.
- Physics and nuclear energy: The concept of atom can be traced to Acharya Kanad. Kanad founded the Vaisheshika school of philosophy where he taught his ideas about the atom and the nature of the universe. Today India is one of the few countries that possesses nuclear technology.
Conclusion
As illustrated above, modern sciences that exists today in India and elsewhere has roots to the ancient scientific past of India. Many advancements in fields of science and technology can be traced to the basic foundational knowledge that exists in India. In medieval times, this knowledge was disseminated through translation of ancient Indian books by Arabs and Persians. Such developments are believed to have taken India’s wisdom to Europe and other western nations.
Introduction
A river delta is a low-lying plain or landform that occurs at the mouth of a river near where it flows into an ocean or another larger body of water. It is a “depositional feature” of a river in its senile or old stage. These are wetlands that form as rivers empty their water and sediment into another body of water, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. Deltas’ greatest importance to human activities, fish and wildlife lay in their characteristic highly fertile soil and dense, diverse vegetation.
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Importance of deltas
- River deltas do not cover much actual land area. However, they tend to host many resources that both people and animals rely on; some river delta areas host millions of people.
- River deltas provide food, ports and transportation for many countries.
- River deltas are important in human civilization, as they are major agricultural production centers and population centers. g.: rice growing belts in Godavari delta region of Andhra Pradesh.
- River deltas are some of the most biologically productive places in the world.
- The soil tends to be rich, and plants flourish there.
- River deltas support fish nurseries, fisheries, crustaceans, forests and crops such as tea and rice.
- Ecosystems like wetlands and mangrove forests depend on a stable river delta.
- Animals like birds, insects and sometimes even large predators rely on the ecosystem of a delta.
- As such, it is essential that these unique and beautiful havens of biodiversity remain as healthy habitat for the many species of plants, animals, insects, and fish — some rare, threatened or endangered — which call them home.
- Deltas provide coastline defence and can impact drinking water supply.
- The Mississippi River Delta, for example, buffers the impact of potentially strong hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico.
- River deltas are one of nature’s cleanup crews.
- The deltas work to absorb storm and flood runoff as well as to clean water traveling through them.
Conclusion
Thus, there is a delicate struggle between preserving natural ecosystems and using the planet’s resources that must be maintained on the deltas of the world.
Introduction
Mesoscale or Local winds usually occur on a small spatial scale, their horizontal dimensions typically several tens to a few hundreds of kilometres. They also tend to be short-lived lasting typically several hours to a day. There are many such winds around the world, some of them cold, some warm, some wet, some dry. There are many hazards associated with the winds.
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Types and Impact of local winds on the weather:
Periodical winds: The winds originating from diurnal temperature and pressure variation are known as Periodical and they generally complete their cycle in a day/ 24 hour like Land & Sea Breeze and Mountain & Valley Breeze.
Land and Sea Breeze: Land and Sea Breeze is generated by the diurnal variation of pressure. Due to this reason, the Land and Sea Breeze are sometimes known as diurnal Monsoon.
Land Breeze:
- At night reversal of sea breeze may occur but with somewhat weaker characteristics as the temperature and pressure gradient are less steeper during the night.
- During night land breeze is established since land cools to a temperature lower than the adjacent water setting up a pressure gradient from land to sea
- The horizontal and vertical extent of the Land Breeze helps in moderation of temperature of a coastal area during night-time as it maintains regular circulation
- Land Breeze usually attains its maximum intensity in the early morning hours and dies out soon after sunup.
Sea Breeze:
- The sea breeze develops along seacoasts or large inland water bodies when the land heats much faster than the water on a clear day and a pressure gradient is directed high over the water to low over the land.
- Impact of Sea breeze rapidly declines landward and impact is limited to 50km.
- Land- Sea Breeze system is very shallow as the average depth of the land and sea breeze, varies from 1000-2000M in tropical regions and over the lakes, the depth is even lesser.
- Sea Breeze brings cool marine air and thus help in moderation of coastal temperature and due to the sea breeze, coastal regions record a drop of 5-10 0C in their temperature
- It also frequently causes late afternoon rainfall in these coastal areas, particularly during summer.
- Due to the location nearer to the lakes, places experience the Lake Effect like Chicago, due to its location near a lake presents a typical example of lake effect- where lakeside areas are cooler than the much warmer outlying areas in the summer.
Mountain and Valley Breeze: These winds develop over areas with large differences in relief and majorly caused by the temperature gradient that exists between Mountain Slopes and valleys.
Valley Breeze:
- Due to the intense insolation during the daytime, the slopes of the mountain heat up rapidly but the free atmosphere above the lowlands is not heated to some extent.
- As the valleys receive comparatively lesser insolation so relatively high pressure sets up in the valleys while along the mountain slopes due to more heating the warm air is uplifted, and low pressure sets up.
- Thus, the air moves from the Valleys towards the slopes (High pressure to the low pressure) and this upslope movement of air is known as valley breeze.
- Valley breezes are also known as Anabatic Wind.
- Weather associated with the Valley Breeze
- This type of upslope winds in the Mountainous region may cause occasional and afternoon thundershowers on warm and humid days.
- Sometimes, the valley breezes are also accompanied by the formation of cumulus cloud near mountain peaks or over slopes and escarpments.
Mountain Breeze:
- On mountainsides under the clear night sky, the higher land (upslope land) radiates heat and is cooled and in turn cools the air in contact with it. The cool denser air flows down the mountain slope due to the pressure difference since the valley is warmer and at relatively lower pressure.
- This flow of the air is termed as Mountain Breeze and they are also known as Katabatic wind.
- Weather associated with the Mountain Breeze
- By the morning the mountain breeze produces temperature inversions and valley bottom becomes colder than the Mountain Slopes.
- Thus, the valley floors are characterised by frost during the night while upper part/ hillside are free from frost in cold areas.
Non-Periodical winds: Only present during a season and are classified as Hot and Cold Winds.
Hot Local Winds: Hot Local winds are produced generally by the mechanism of downslope compressional heating also known as adiabatic heating. The examples of the Hot Local Winds include Chinook, Harmattan, Foehn, Sirocco, Norwester, Brickfielder, Khamsin, Santa Ana, Loo etc.
- Chinook:
- These are warm and dry winds blowing on the eastern slopes (leeward side) of the Rocky Mountain. They are the result of adiabatic heating which occurs due to downslope compression on the leeward side, as the mountain barrier creates frictional drag which tends to pull the air from the higher level down on the leeward and air forced down is heated adiabatically and at the same time its relative humidity is also lowered.
- The temperature in Chinook is so warm that it can remove the underlying snow cover/ice and sometimes these winds are so dry that in spite of their below freezing temperatures the entire snow cover on the ground disappears, by process of sublimation. Thus, these winds are also known as Chinook, which literally means ‘Snow Eater’.
- Ordinarily, a Chinook wind is accompanied by the cyclonic activity which produces Cloud and precipitation on the windward side of the Rocky Mountain Range.
- The latent heat released into the air through the condensation process warms the air and which passes across the mountain range and since the air has lost its moisture it becomes drier.
- During winter Great Plain of North America are very cold and frozen, Chinook with its arrival increase the temperature and bring relief to the people and at the same time, the rise in temperature due to Chinook also helps in early sowing of spring wheat in the USA.
- Foehn:
- Foehn is dry and warm wind resulting due to adiabatic heating on the leeward side of the Mountain range.
- These winds are more common on the northern side of Alps in Switzerland and with the arrival of these winds, there is a rapid rise in temperature.
- The low relative humidity and high temperature are due to the adiabatic heating of the down-slope winds
- The Foehn winds are present throughout the winter and due to the presence of such winds the temperature increases, and valleys of Switzerland are called ‘Climatic Oasis’ during the winter season
- Harmattan:
- These hot and dry wind originate from the Sahara Desert and blow towards the Guinea coast of Africa.
- Due to their journey over the Sahara Desert, these winds become extremely dry and as they pass over the Sahara Desert, they pick up more sand especially red sand and turn dusty.
- As these winds arrive in the western coast of Africa, the weather, which is warm and moist before its arrival, turns into pleasant dry weather with low relative humidity, thus bringing great relief to the people. Due to this reason, they are also known as “doctor” winds in the Guinea coast area of Western Africa
- Loo:
- It originates from the Thar desert and has north-westerly to a westerly direction.
- They dominate during early summer in the months of March to May and create heat waves like condition in Northern India and adjoining parts.
- They have desiccating effects and are considered as environmental hazards.
Cold Local Winds: Cold local winds are dust-laden winds and as they have a temperature below freezing point, they create Cold Wave condition. The examples of Cold Local winds include-Mistral, Bora, Northers, Blizzard, Purga, Laventer, Pampero, Bise etc.
- Mistral:
- It is a cold and dry wind which blows in the Spain and France from North-west to South-East direction, mostly occur during winter months.
- Due to the presence of the Rhome River, these winds are channelized into the Rhome valley due to which they become extremely cold.
- As they pass through the narrow Rhome Valley, they turn into stormy northerly cold winds
- Such stormy cold northerly winds cause a sudden drop in temperature to below freezing point.
- Bora:
- These are cold and dry north-easterly winds which blow from the mountains towards the eastern shore of Adriatic Sea.
- Bora is more effective in North Italy since here it descends the southern slopes of the Alps, although due to descend it gets adiabatically heated still its temperature is very low in comparison to the coastal area and these are the typical example of fall winds.
- Bora has often associated with the passage of a temperate Cyclone and at times the Bora winds themselves attain the hurricane force at the foot of the mountain and may cause disastrous impacts on properties.
- Blizzard:
- Blizzard is cold, violent, powdery polar winds (pick dry snow from the ground)
- They are prevalent in the north and south polar regions, Canada, USA, Siberia etc. Due to the absence of any east-west Mountain barrier, these winds reach to the southern states of USA.
Conclusion
Local differences of temperature and pressure produce local winds. Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere.
Introduction
The term de-globalisation is used by economic and market commentators to highlight the trend of several countries wanting to go back to economic and trade policies that put their national interests first. These policies often take the form of tariffs or quantitative barriers that impede free movement of people, products and services among countries. The idea behind all this protectionism is to shield local manufacturing by making imports costlier.
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Background
- The COVID-19 pandemic is driving the world economy to retreat from global economic integration.
- Policymakers and business leaders are now questioning whether global supply chains have been stretched too far.
- In an environment where alliances are uncertain and international cooperation is absent, they are also asking whether they should reduce their economic interdependence.
- National security and public health concerns are providing new rationales for protectionism, especially for medical gear and food, and an emphasis on domestic sourcing.
Factors contributing to deglobalisation
- Right wing politics in West: A surge in populist politics in Europe and the US has ridden a wave of opposition to globalized economies and international institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and NATO.
- Brexit: Leaving the European Union (EU) is written into the constitutions of populist parties in countries such as Poland and Hungary.
- Delegitimization of International Organizations: The United Nations (UN) is widely viewed as weak and deadlocked, and populist movements tend to ridicule the notion of belonging to an international community of nations.
- International organizations have seen their reputations suffer, either condemned as too powerful or too weak.
- The World Health Organization (WHO) struggled to drive an efficient response to the COVID–19 pandemic, in large part due to uncooperative governments.
- Lockdown of national borders: The COVID-19 pandemic illustrates the danger of relying on global supply chains for essential medical supplies, while climate change demands reductions in the enormous carbon footprint of international trade.
- India came up with self-sufficient ‘Atmanirbharta’ concept and so did many other nations.
- Nations like Japan and India have joined hands to from SCRI – Supply Chain Resilience Initiative.
Impact of deglobalisation on Indian society
- Impact on food security: Indonesia, the world’s top producer of palm oil which was indicted for driving destruction of its tropical forests, has now sent shock waves as it has banned exports of this cooking oil.
- Ukraine is a supplier of wheat and the war has led to severe shortage in the globe. Same is the case with sunflower oil.
- This impacts the food security in India.
- High energy costs: It is fuelled partly because of the sanctions on Russian oil and gas that are driving the world to leapfrog to wind and solar.
- But it is a fact that much of the rare earth minerals that will be needed to power this new energy future from petro to electro are controlled by the same countries that are in the non-democracy camp, from China to Russia.
- India’s antagonism with China makes it harder for India in obtaining Lithium to achieve its FAME targets.
- Migration: De-globalisation with respect to the mobility of services and people can impact both the export of services, and the trend of Indians migrating abroad for higher education and jobs.
- Climate change cooperation impacted: We are closing borders; shutting doors of global trade and, worse, dividing and polarising the world into camps of good versus evil. This, please remember, is happening at a time when climate change needs us to come together to cooperate and act globally.
Conclusion
Just as globalization reflects a process of increasing economic interdependency, deglobalization then marks a retreat from global economic integration. And there are indications this has been happening for some time already. The Great Recession, ensuing tariff-oriented protectionism, supply chain restructuring due to the pandemic, disintegration of interlinked commodity markets because of the Ukraine war are examples of a deglobalizing world. But globalisation will always remain relevant. The peak of globalization is well behind us but globalization progress is much slower than before, but we’re not in deglobalization era yet.
General Studies – 2
Introduction
Poverty can be defined as a condition in which an individual or household lacks the financial resources to afford a basic minimum standard of living. Economists and policymakers estimate “absolute” poverty as the shortfall in consumption expenditure from a threshold called the “poverty line”.
The official poverty line is the expenditure incurred to obtain the goods in a “poverty line basket” (PLB). Poverty can be measured in terms of the number of people living below this line (with the incidence of poverty expressed as the head count ratio). The “depth” of poverty indicates how far the poor are below the poverty line.
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Various ways to measure poverty
- Planning Commission Expert Group (1962), working group constituted by the Planning Commission formulated the separate poverty lines for rural and urban areas (₹20 and ₹25 per capita per year respectively).
- VM Dandekar and N Rath (1971), made the first systematic assessment of poverty in India, based on National Sample Survey (NSS) data.
- Unlike previous scholars who had considered subsistence living or basic minimum needs criteria as the measure of poverty line, VM Dandekar and N Rath were of the view that poverty line must be derived from the expenditure that was adequate to provide 2250 calories per day in both rural and urban areas.
- Expenditure based Poverty line estimation, generated a debate on minimum calorie consumption norms.
- Alagh Committee (1979): Task force constituted by the Planning Commission under the chairmanship of YK Alagh, constructed a poverty line for rural and urban areas on the basis of nutritional requirements and related consumption expenditure.
- Poverty estimates for subsequent years were to be calculated by adjusting the price level for inflation.
- Lakdawala Committee (1993): Task Force chaired by DT Lakdawala, based on the assumption that the basket of goods and services used to calculate Consumer Price Index-Industrial Workers (CPI-IW) and Consumer Price Index- Agricultural Labourers (CPI-AL) reflect the consumption patterns of the poor, made the following suggestions:
- Consumption expenditure should be calculated based on calorie consumption as earlier.
- State specific poverty lines should be constructed and these should be updated using the CPI-IW in urban areas and CPI-AL in rural areas.
- Discontinuation of scaling of poverty estimates based on National Accounts Statistics.
Tendulkar Committee (2009): Expert group constituted by the Planning Commission and, chaired by Suresh Tendulkar, was constituted to review methodology for poverty estimation and to address the following shortcomings of the previous methods:
- Obsolete Consumption Pattern: Consumption patterns were linked to the 1973-74 poverty line baskets (PLBs) of goods and services, whereas there were significant changes in the consumption patterns of the poor since that time, which were not reflected in the poverty estimates.
- Inflation Adjustment: There were issues with the adjustment of prices for inflation, both spatially (across regions) and temporally (across time).
- Health and Education Expenditure: Earlier poverty lines assumed that health and education would be provided by the state and formulated poverty lines accordingly.
Issues involved in measuring poverty in India
- Monetary-based poverty measures are inadequate: In most cases, not all individuals who are income poor are multidimensionally poor and not all multidimensionally poor individuals are income poor.
- As per the Tendulkar estimation, the percentage of people living below the poverty line in India is 21.9%. However, as pe Rangarajan estimation, the percentage of people living below the poverty line in India is 29.5%.
- Economic growth does not always reduce poverty or deprivation. Several studies have found that economic growth is not strongly associated with a reduction in other deprivations, such as child malnutrition or child mortality.
- Poverty as multidimensional: Poor people describe ill-being to include poor health, nutrition, lack of adequate sanitation and clean water, social exclusion, low education, bad housing conditions, violence, shame, disempowerment and much more.
- Need for more policy-relevant information on poverty, so that policymakers are better equipped to deal with it: For example, an area in which most people are deprived in education requires a different poverty reduction strategy from an area in which most people are deprived in housing conditions
Conclusion
The World Health Organization has described poverty as the greatest cause of suffering on earth. Poverty eradication should not be the goal of the government but the goal of the government policies should be to create prosperity. Both monetary and non-monetary measures of poverty are needed to better inform the policies intended to address the needs and deprivations faced by poor populations
Introduction
The Armed Forces Special Powers Act commonly known as AFSPA came in to force decades ago in the context of increasing violence in the North Eastern states. Passed in 1958 for North East and in 1990 for Jammu and Kashmir , the law gives armed forces necessary powers to control disturbed areas which are designated by the govt.
Following the recent killings of 14 civilians in Nagaland, the Chief Minister has demanded the repeal of the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act.
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Key features of act
- In simple terms, AFSPA gives armed forces the power to maintain public order in “disturbed areas”.
- They have the authority to prohibit a gathering of five or more persons in an area, can use force or even open fire after giving due warning if they feel a person is in contravention of the law.
- If reasonable suspicion exists, the army can also arrest a person without a warrant; enter or search premises without a warrant; and ban the possession of firearms.
- Under the provisions of the AFSPA armed forces are empowered with immunity from being prosecuted to open fire , enter and search without warrant and arrest any person who has committed a cognizable offence.
- As of now this act is in force in Jammu and Kashmir , Assam , Nagaland and parts of Arunachal Pradesh and Manipur.
AFSPA – a draconian act
- It has been dubbed as a license to kill. The main criticism of the Act is directed against the provisions of Section 4, which gives the armed forces the power to open fire and even cause death, if prohibitory orders are violated.
- Human rights activists object on the grounds that these provisions give the security forces unbridled powers to arrest, search, seize and even shoot to kill.
- Activists accuse the security forces of having destroyed homes and entire villages merely on the suspicion that insurgents were hiding there. They point out that Section 4 empowers the armed forces to arrest citizens without warrant and keep them in custody for several days.
- They also object to Section 6, which protects security forces personnel from prosecution except with the prior sanction of the central government. Critics say this provision has on many occasions led to even non-commissioned officers brazenly opening fire on crowds without having to justify their action.
- Critics say the act has failed to contain terrorism and restore normalcy in disturbed areas, as the number of armed groups has gone up after the act was established. Many even hold it responsible for the spiralling violence in areas it is in force.
- The decision of the government to declare a particular area ‘disturbed’ cannot be challenged in a court of law. Hence, several cases of human rights violations go unnoticed.
Should AFSPA be repealed?
- The Army clearly sees AFSPA as a capstone enabling Act that gives it the powers necessary to conduct counter-insurgency operations efficiently.
- If AFSPA is repealed or diluted, it is the army leadership’s considered view that the performance of battalions in counter-insurgency operations will be adversely affected and the terrorists or insurgents will seize the initiative.
- Many argue that removal of the act will lead to demoralising the armed forces and see militants motivating locals to file lawsuits against the army.
- Also, the forces are aware that they cannot afford to fail when called upon to safeguard the country’s integrity. Hence, they require the minimum legislation that is essential to ensure efficient utilization of combat capability.
- AFSPA is necessary to maintain law and order in disturbed areas, otherwise things will go haywire. The law also dissuades advancement of terrorist activities in these areas.
- Also, extraordinary situations require special handling.
Way forward
- Security forces should be very careful while operating in the Northeast and must not give any chance to the militants to exploit the situation.
- Indiscriminate arrests and harassment of people out of frustration for not being able to locate the real culprits should be avoided. All good actions of the force get nullified with one wrong action.
- Any person, including the supervisory staff, found guilty of violating law should be severely dealt with.
- The law is not defective, but it is its implementation that has to be managed properly.
- The local people have to be convinced with proper planning and strategy.
Conclusion
The practical problems encountered in ensuring transparency in counter-insurgency operations must be overcome by innovative measures. The army must be completely transparent in investigating allegations of violations of human rights and bringing the violators to speedy justice. Exemplary punishment must be meted out where the charges are proved.
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Expert recommendations
- A committee headed by Justice Jeevan Reddy was appointed in 2004 to review AFSPA. Though the committee found that the powers conferred under the Act are not absolute, it nevertheless concluded that the Act should be repealed.
- However, it recommended that essential provisions of the Act be inserted into the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act of 1967.
- The Second Administrative Reforms Commission headed by then Union law minister M Veerappa Moily also recommended that AFSPA should be repealedand its essential provisions should be incorporated in the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA).
General Studies – 3
Introduction
Disinvestment, or divestment, refers to the act of a business or government selling or liquidating an asset or subsidiary or the process of dilution of a government’s stake in a PSU (Public Sector Undertaking).
Earlier in October 2021, the Tata Group emerged as the winning bidder for Air India, the debt-laden national carrier.
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Background
- The government unveiled a bold new disinvestment policy that envisages a bare minimum presence of government-owned businesses even in the strategic sectors.
- The government is also pursuing the sale of its entire stake in public sector firms such as BPCL, Shipping Corporation of India, IDBI Bank, two other public sector banks and one general insurance company this financial year alone.
- As part of the ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan’ package, the government in May 2020 had announced that there will be a maximum of four public sector companies in the strategic sectors, and state-owned firms in other segments will eventually be privatised.
Concerns associated with divestment strategy
- Government has mostly used disinvestment for fiscal reasons rather than growth objectives.
- Process of disinvestment is not favoured socially as it is against the interests of socially disadvantaged people.
- Over the years the policy of divestment has increasingly become a tool to raise resources to cover the fiscal deficit with little focus on market discipline or strategic objective.
- Sometimes with the emergence of private monopolies consumer welfare will be reduced.
- Mere change of ownership from public to private does not ensure higher efficiency and productivity.
- It may lead to retrenchment of workers who will be deprived of the means of their livelihood.
- Private sector governed as they are by profit motive has a tendency to use capital intensive techniques which will worsen unemployment problem in India.
- Loss making units don’t attract investment so easily.
Rationale behind divestment and strategic sale of PSU’s
- Financing economic recovery: There is a pressure on the government to raise resources to support the economic recovery and meet expectations of higher outlays for healthcare.
- The increase in public spending in the upcoming Budget will have to be financed to a large extent by garnering disinvestment proceeds and monetising assets.
- Minimum government Maximum governance: To eliminate the need for the government’s involvement in non-strategic areas.
- Government must not to business, is the rationale behind the divestment.
- Government presence distorts competitive dynamics for private players.
- Raising efficiency: To diversify the ownership of PSU for enhancing efficiency of individual enterprise. Eg Hindustan Zinc is the world’s second-largest zinc-lead miner and one of the top 10 silver producers. It benefitted from the privatisation.
- Better economic potential under private players: Economic potential of such entities may be better discovered in the hands of the strategic investors due to various factors, e.g. infusion of capital, technology up-gradation and efficient management practices
- Better utilization of tax payer money: Loss making PSU’s results in consumers and taxpayers bearing the brunt of inefficient PSU operations. Instead government can use the same resources into areas that directly benefit people.
Way Forward
- Monetization of PSU assets instead of disinvestment which yield more.
- Define the priority sectors for the government based on its strategic interests.
- Investment in PSUs has to be in terms of generation of adequate social and strategic returns.
- It should be time bound programme.
- The government ownership is required for sectors with strategic relevance such as defence, natural resources, etc. The government should, exit non-strategic sectors such as hotels, soaps, airlines, travel agencies and the manufacture and sale of alcohol.
- The government should look into strengthening the regulatory framework that ensures efficient market conditions.
- Instead of creating PSUs, the government should create regulations that would ease the entry of new players. The regulations should also ensure that the basic necessities of the consumers are met.
- Allowing both domestic and foreign buyers to bid freely for stakes.
Value Addition
Types of Disinvestments
- Minority Disinvestment: A minority disinvestment is one such that, at the end of it, the government retains a majority stake in the company, typically greater than 51%, thus ensuring management control.
- Majority Disinvestment: A majority disinvestment is one in which the government, post disinvestment, retains a minority stake in the company i.e. it sells off a majority stake.
- Complete Privatisation: Complete privatisation is a form of majority disinvestment wherein 100% control of the company is passed on to a buyer. Examples of this include 18 hotel properties of ITDC and 3 hotel properties of HCI.
Introduction
The Indian pharmaceutical industry is one of the major contributors to the Indian economy and it is the world’s third-largest industry by volume. The Indian pharmaceutical industry’s success can be credited to its world-class capabilities in formulation development, entrepreneurial abilities of its people, and the vision of its business leaders to establish India’s footprint in the United States and other large international markets.
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Strengths of Indian Pharmaceutical Sector
- According to the Economic Survey of 2020-21, the Indian pharmaceuticals sector is expected to expand multifold and become a $ 130 billion industry by 2030, while medicine spending is projected to grow rapidly too, leading India to become one of the top 10 countries in terms of such expenditure.
- Potential of Pharma sector: The Indian pharmaceutical industry, valued at $41 billion, is expected to grow to $65 billion by 2024 and $120-130 billion by 2030, noted the new Economic survey.
- Rise in exports: Indian pharma exports have registered a growth of 103 percent since 2013-14. This happens to be Pharma Sector’ best export performance ever till 2021-22.
- Positive growth: Drug formulations, biologicals have consistently registered positive growth and the highest increase in absolute terms in recent months.
- This led to a rise in its share to 7.1 percent in April-November 2020 from 5 percent in April-November 2019, making it the second-largest exported commodity among the top 10 export commodities.
- This shows that India has the potential to be the ‘pharmacy of the world’”, the survey said.
- In 1969, Indian pharmaceuticals had a 5 per cent share of the market in India, and global pharma had a 95 per cent share. By 2020, it was the reverse, with Indian pharma having an almost 85 per cent share and global, 15 per cent.
- Significant advantage: The availability of a significant raw material base and skilled workforce have enabled India to emerge as an international manufacturing hub for generic medicines.
- Further, India is the only country with the largest number of USFDA compliant pharma plants (more than 262 including APIs) outside of the US.
- Capacity: The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that India can not only innovate but also rapidly distribute time-critical drugs to every part of the globe that needs it.
- Global leader: Presently, over 80% of the antiretroviral drugs used globally to combat AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) are supplied by Indian pharmaceutical firms.
Issues facing the Pharma industry:
- Overdependence: Indian pharma industries import about 80% of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients(API) from China. The API forms the base of drugs. With trade-wars at global levels and wavering bilateral relations, there is a looming threat which can stall the Indian pharma industries. In FY19, Indian pharma companies imported bulk drugs and intermediates worth $2.4 million from China.
- Compliance issues and good manufacturing practices: Diversifying the global market has been a problem with countries China and USA imposing Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary(SPS) barriers of WTO against generic drugs. The selective targeting by US Food and Drug Administration and Chinese Drug regulators are a problem still.
- Drug Price Control Order: The companies sight that the reforms of the Government for the essential medicines has caused them to lower the price of drugs. This has been done by the Government for the betterment of the public.
- Stronger IP regulations: IP regulation has always been a thorn in the skin for the companies, especially the foreign companies. The companies strongly feel that the rules have to be amended and the so-called victim of the lax regulations have been the foreign entrants.
- Because of fewer costs associated with generic medicines, multiple applications for generic drugs are often approved to market a single product; this creates competition in the marketplace globally, typically resulting in lower prices. Pharma sector in India is also facing steep headwinds on account of this.
- There is a lack of proper assessment of the performance of the pharmaceutical industry and its efficiency and productivity and due to this many plants have not survived.
- Unregulated online pharmacies or e-pharmacies emerging in India have been a major concern for authorized setups.
- There has been a significant drop in the flow of prescriptions as the Indian pharmaceutical industry has been witnessing a decline in the overall quality of its medical representatives (MRs). This is mainly on account of lack of training and support by the industry.
- In countries such as Russia, one requires to be a medical graduate to be a pharma sales representative. In the European Union, one needs to pass stringent examinations to become an MR. Once they qualify, they need to renew their certification every three years. But in India, even non-graduates are performing as MRs without proper guidance.
Measures needed:
- India’s strong innovation capabilities aided partnerships would help in overcoming these problems.
- Developing our R&D sector to reduce dependency on foreign countries for raw materials
- The introduction of pharmaceutical product patents and the mandatory implementation of good manufacturing practices is the need of the hour.
- It is necessary for the Indian pharmaceutical industry to become globally competitive through world-class manufacturing capabilities, with improved quality and a higher efficiency of production, and there is a need to stress on the up-gradation of R&D capabilities.
- Training and development of human resources for the pharmaceutical industry and drug research and development should be done accordingly;
- There is also a need to promote public-private partnership for the development of the pharmaceuticals industry; promote environmentally sustainable development of the pharmaceutical industry; and enable the availability, accessibility, and affordability of drugs.
- Improvement in industrial practices to provide better training and support services for employees to perform their job functions.
- Using multilateral organisation like WTO against the illegal trade practices.
- Funding for the pharma companies might be a way to move forward.
- IPR Think Tank formed by the Government to draft stronger national IP policies.
Conclusion:
The affordability of healthcare is an issue of concern even in India, and people here would welcome some clarity on the principles of fair pricing vis-à-vis medical products. It is important that the accused companies are given a good hearing. The Government of India has taken up a number of initiatives to create an ecosystem that fosters manufacturing in pharma industries.
Introduction
Indian Space Association or ISpA is a premier industry association of space and satellite companies. In line with the recent measures taken to expand the role of private players in the space sector, the Indian Space Association aims to serve as a body that brings public and private entities together so that they can work in tandem for the expansion of the Indian space programme.
India is lagging in harnessing the power of private innovation in the space domain. This not only limits the exploitation of space for economic development, but has serious national security implications.
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Potential of private sector in the space sector
- Today, the space industry is undergoing a paradigm shift, moving from Space 3.0 to Space 4.0, driven by changes in motivations, actors, roles, and technologies.
- While Space 3.0 has been characterized by large government investments and public-public collaborations, Space 4.0 is a more democratized and accessible field with more public-private and private-private collaborations.
- It entails the emergence of a plethora of small to medium-sized private companies.
- As military uses of space and prestige projects like Moon-landing emerged, major private sector entities already in the aviation industry like Boeing and Lockheed won space contracts in the US.
- Significant expansion of satellite-based telecommunication, navigation, broadcasting and mapping, and lent a significant commercial dimension to the space sector.
- As the digital revolution in the 21st century transformed the world economy, the commercial space sector has begun to grow in leaps and bounds.
- The global space business is now estimated to be around $ 400 billion and is expected easily rise to at least trillion dollars by 2040.
- One example of the rise of private sector companiesin the space sector is SpaceX run by the US entrepreneur Elon Musk. Hired for a resupply mission for the space station, it now launches more rockets every year than NASA.
- The entry of private sector has begun to drive down the cost-per-launch through innovations such as reusable rockets.
- India, however, is quite some distance away from adapting to the unfolding changes in the global space business.
- In its early years, India’s space programme that was constrained by lack of resources found innovative ways of getting ahead in space.
- Although the ISRO encourages private sector participation in the national space programme, its model is still very 20th century — in terms of governmental domination.
Challenges for private space entities in India:
- Monopoly: In India ‘Space’ means Indian Space Research Organisation. Globally the technology is highly protected because of its dual use capability. Even if it was not, it would be prohibitively expensive.
- Funding: A major challenge in setting up a space business in India is funding. Space industry is capital intensive and upstream activities come with a long gestation period.
- Investor’s Dilemma: The lack of clarity among the investors and lack of the ecosystem required for significant contribution is a challenge for the investors.
- Lack of Regulation: India is a party to the Outer Space Treaty, where one of the fundamental requirements laid upon states is the supervision of space activities within its borders, the country did not have any formally legislated laws. This is a potential roadblock for commercialization.
- Growth Challenges: Scaling up, international marketing and funding are challenges.
- Lack of Support: The Indian ecosystem has neither incubation support nor pointers to seek support of leaders such as ISRO for space start-ups.
- Political and bureaucratic hurdles limit private space operations in India.
- Low in-house capacity of ISRO restricts them to very few launches in a year. Privatization can offload 30-40% of the work and help them work more efficiently.
Way forward:
- India should have national space activities legislation which takes on board all stakeholders.
- A public-private partnership (PPP) model can be looked into to realise ISRO’s workhorse Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), with a joint venture between ISRO and the private sector.
- In the UK, space ventures are treated as a complement to big organizations and not a competitor. This should be encouraged in India too.
- A supportive international partner and likeminded local partners helps to set up a space business.
- The idea should be to let the private industry build their own facilities after gaining enough expertise.
- ISRO has built a space technology park spread over 25 acres in Bengaluru where the entire range of facilities have been set up for use by the industry.
Conclusion
The private sector already supplies majority of the sub-systems in satellite manufacturing. This can be further scaled up into other activities with proper regulation and partnership of the ISRO and private sector. The country must deregulate the space sector to encourage private enterprise if we are to compete in the new space economy.
Introduction
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
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Formation of Acid Rain
- Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents.
- The SO2and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
- These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
Causes of Acid Rain
The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
- Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
- Vehicles and heavy equipment.
- Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
- Volcanic eruptions.
Impacts of Acid rain
- Forest Ecosystem
- Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain leaches aluminum from the soil. That aluminum may be harmful to plants as well as animals.
- At high elevations, acidic fog and clouds might strip nutrients from trees’ foliage, leaving them with brown or dead leaves and needles. The trees are then less able to absorb sunlight, which makes them weak and less able to withstand freezing temperatures.
- Soil
- Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and biology.
- It means soil microbes and biological activity as well as soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are damaged or reversed due to the effects of acid rain.
- Lakes & Rivers
- Without pollution or acid rain, most lakes and streams would have a pH level near 6.5.
- Acid rain, however, has caused many lakes and streams across places to have much lower pH levels.
- In addition, aluminum that is released into the soil eventually ends up in lakes and streams.
- Unfortunately, this increase in acidity and aluminum levels can be deadly to aquatic wildlife, including phytoplankton, mayflies, rainbow trout, small mouth bass, frogs, spotted salamanders, crayfish, and other creatures that are part of the food web.
- Health Problems
- Air pollution like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause respiratory diseases, or can make these diseases worse.
- Respiratory diseases like asthma or chronic bronchitis make it hard for people to breathe. The pollution that causes acid rain can also create tiny particles.
- Nitrogen oxides cause ground-level ozone. This ground-level ozone causes respiratory problems, like pneumonia and bronchitis, and can even cause permanent lung damage.
- Statues, monuments & buildings
- Statues, buildings, vehicles, pipes and cables can all suffer. The worst affected are things made from limestone or sandstone as these types of rock are particularly susceptible and can be affected by air pollution in gaseous form as well as by acid rain.
- The chemicals found in acid rain can cause paint to peel and stone statues to begin to appear old and worn down, which reduces their value and beauty.
- g.: Taj Mahal, one of the 7 wonders of the world, is largely affected by acid rain. The city of Agra has many industries which emit the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. People continue to use low-quality coal and firewood as a domestic fuel, adding to this problem.
- Statue of Liberty in USA which is made of copper has also been damaged by the cumulative action of acid rain and oxidation for over 30 years and is, therefore, becoming green.
Measures needed
- Reduce emissions:
- Burning fossil fuels is still one of the cheapest ways to produce electricity so people are now researching new ways to burn fuel which don’t produce so much pollution.
- Governments need to spend more money on pollution control even if it does mean an increase in the price of electricity.
- Sulphur can also be ‘washed’ out of smoke by spraying a mixture of water and powdered limestone into the smokestack.
- Cars are now fitted with catalytic converters which remove three dangerous chemicals from exhaust gases.
- Alternative sources of energy
- Governments need to invest in researching different ways to produce energy.
- These include wind energy, geothermal energy, solar energy, hydropower, and nuclear power.
- Fuel cells, natural gas, and batteries can also substitute the use of fossil fuel as cleaner energy sources.
- Conserving Resources
- Greater subsidies of public transport by the government to encourage people to use public transport rather than always travelling by car.
- Every individual can make an effort to save energy by switching off lights when they are not being used and using energy-saving appliances – when less electricity is being used, pollution from power plants decreases.
- Walking, cycling and sharing cars all reduce the pollution from vehicles
- Restoring the Damage done by Acid Rain
- Lakes and rivers can have powdered limestone added to them to neutralise the water – this is called “liming”.
Conclusion
Concerted efforts at global and national levels across the globe can help us tide over the harmful effects of Acid Rain.
Answer the following questions in 250 words:
General Studies – 1
Introduction
India has a vast basket of living and diverse cultural traditions, traditional expressions, intangible cultural heritage comprising masterpieces which need institutional support and encouragement with a view to addressing areas critical for the survival and propagation of these forms of cultural heritage. Preserving our heritage is enshrined as a Fundamental Duty in our Constitution.
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The term heritage has wide connotations spanning across nature, culture, food and other dimensions. Indian Art heritage primarily refers to the tangible heritage comprising of Paintings and art forms; Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites; Sculptures; Scriptures; Artefacts.
Threats to Indian Art Heritage:
- Theft: The incidents of thefts have been observed usually from unprotected monuments, ancient temples. The thefts cases have also been seen in the protected monuments and museums as well. It is due to negligence of security guards in museums, monuments etc.
- Smuggling: illicit traffic and smuggling in antiquities. Illicit traffic is motivated often by profit and sometimes by the demand for luxuries.
- Tourism: Unregulated tourism, tourist activities run by touts, private agents have affected the art heritage places.The Culture Ministry of India has reported that up to 24 Indian monuments have been declared “untraceable” or “missing” by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- Issues with security of museums: Most of the museums are poorly guarded due to shortage of manpower leading to theft of artefacts, fire accidents etc.
- Lack of public awareness: This leads to poor maintenance, vandalism, spoiling the monuments artefacts. Replacing the structures or building structures close to the monuments leading to
- Duplication: Fakes of paintings and art forms leading to threat to livelihoods of artists.
- Poor Maintenance: The state of the wall paintings in Ajanta caves is continuously getting worse, which can be attributed to humidity as well as to a lack of care.
- Encroachment of monuments: Another miss from the ministry has been encroachments of monuments. Over 278 centrally protected monuments have been encroached upon or have illegal occupants, as per government data.
Rationale behind safeguarding the art heritage:
- Evolution of human consciousness is a continuous process: History here serves as a laboratory and the past serves as a demarcation to understand the regional laws and social structures. This understanding helps in our progress towards an ideal society.
- The art heritage is the identity and pride of our country. It is duty of every citizen to protect, preserve and perpetuate the cultural richness.
- Tourism potential for art monuments and museums is very high. Tourism generates revenue for the state as well as private artists due to the money-multiplier quality.
- Infrastructure development takes place in and around the areas. Eg. Hampi despite being a small town has excellent infrastructure.
- It creates jobs for a lot of people from art industry and tourism industry as well
- It creates a feeling of oneness and a sense of attachment by enhancing a sense of belonging to a culture or a region.
- Every historical site has an important story to tell and these stories have inspired many people to strengthen their convictions and commitment to fight injustice and oppression.
Way forward
- Strengthening Legislations and Initiatives:
- The Antiquity Act of 1947, Antiquities and Art Treasures Act of 1972 particularly provide for the prevention of smuggling and illegally dealing in antiques.
- Recent bill to amend The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act which allowed construction within 100m of the protected monuments should be avoided.
- In 2015, the ministry launched an initiative of e-ticketing services in over 116 monuments under the ASI and launched an initiative to digitise cultural resources.
- Strengthening institutions:
- The CAG report on Preservation and Conservation of Monuments and Antiques clearly indicates that the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) for this purpose needs to be more proactive and vigilant in its efforts and the ministry needs to develop an aggressive strategy for the same
- Tapping of the Public —Private Partnership models for sustenance of Arts and Crafts.
- Setting up at least one museum in each district with different chambers for visual and other forms of art, architecture, science, history and geography with regional flavour.
- Artistes from the field of architecture, sculpture, painting, handicrafts, puppetry, music, dance, theatre, and literature will be graded by the Centre on the basis of their performance.
- Cultural awareness:
- Curriculum modification – Identification and inclusion of heritage as an asset in school, Open departments of Heritage management on the lines of Ahmedabad University
- Introduction of a compulsory offline and online training for tourism purposes willing to undertake ventures.
- Heritage depiction and promotion through immersive technology & augmented reality
- Re-Classify heritage and announce awards for people with exceptional heritage sense.
- Greater involvement of universities in schemes promoting arts and culture as well as inclusion of Fine Arts as a subject in universities.
- Adaptive reuse of heritage sites:
- Restoring the historical sites in the form of festivals and inducing festivity link perceptions.
- Recognizing ‘cultural heritage tourism’ as an upcoming industry by building cultural resources with an adaptation of scientific and technological knowledge to local circumstances as well as forming partnerships between local and global bodies.
Conclusion
It is the duty of every citizen to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. The art and culture of our nation are a vast continuum, evolving incessantly since time immemorial. Naturally, preservation and conservation of India’s rich cultural heritage and promotion of all forms of art and culture, both tangible and intangible, including monuments and archaeological sites, anthropology and ethnology, folk and tribal arts, literature and handicrafts, performing art of music-dance-drama and visual arts of paintings-sculpture-graphics is essential and assumes a lot of importance.
Introduction
‘Hyper-globalisation’ is used to describe the dramatic increase in international trade witnessed for about a decade and a half from the early 1990s. It led to an unprecedented movement of capital and of people. It covers all three main dimensions of economic globalization, cultural globalization, and political globalization.
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Impact of hyper-globalisation on Indian Society
- Economic inequality: Hyper Globalization is increasing the inequality around world.
- GAFA (Google, Apple, Facebook, and Amazon) are the wealthiest companies in the world. The wealth created is enjoyed by only few individuals.
- The increased income of persons with required new skills (such as knowledge of Artificial Intelligence) is far less than decreased income of unskilled person, leading to decrease in net prosperity.
- FDI and investment: Some countries are unable to attract FDI, other developing countries who have the ability to attract FDI, are unable to maximise the benefits for indigenous firms.
- Against the poor: WTO Agreement on Agriculture, are result of hyper globalism, which have capability to reduce the prosperity of farmers by limiting government’s support to them.
- Intellectual property: Similarly, agreements such as TRIPS do not let all to enjoy the benefits of innovation there by reducing their chance to increase their prosperity. All these are threatening human prosperity directly or indirectly.
- Ecology and indigenous people: Hyper globalism is also leading to increased extraction of raw materials, de-forestation without any value addition to indigenous people. Moreover, these people need to bear cost of resulting damage to ecology, increased pollution, hence reducing their prosperity.
- This can be better understood when we look at the plight of millions of climate refugees from island nations etc.
- Technological warfare: Technology is going to make warfare more dreadful. Buying and selling dangerous weapons is never as easy as it is in era of hyper globalism.
- If at all war occurs, the damage to property is un-predictable. Eg: Russia-Ukraine war.
- Moreover, if the money used for defence is used for welfarist policies, it would have helped the poor and destitute by making them prosperous.
- Overdependence and disruption: The increasing price risk due to disruption of supplies (eg crude oil and edible oil crisis due to Ukraine war) will have direct impact on poor due to inflation.
- Eg: Dependence on API’s from China during Covid-19 pandemic and people running from pillar to post for common cold medicines.
Measures needed to counter the risks
- Reduce over-dependence: In the real world, countries need to de-risk against overdependence on few suppliers, especially of products entailing heavy foreign exchange outgo.
- Halving import dependence in edible oils from the current 60-65 per cent is a goal worth pursuing, provided such Atmanirbharta does not degenerate into protectionism.
- Domestic producers can be given one-time capital subsidy and tariff support based on long-term import parity pricing.
- Domestic investment: When the global economy is sluggish, only domestic investment can move demand.
- India has an intrinsic advantage of population and its vibrant domestic demand.
- If enough manufacturing capacity as per the policy can be achieved, India can provide good market and employment its products and population.
- Eg: PLI scheme for electronics.
- Monetary policy: Appropriate monetary policy decisions should be made to boost investment. Moreover, reigning in inflation
- Infrastructure: Any policy should be accompanied with public infrastructure especially the transport sectors which also increase would demand. This would also reduce cost of logistics and make Indian goods competitive in the global market in turn increasing India’s prosperity.
Conclusion
Hyper globalisation is not entirely detrimental to India, rather it has increased technology transfer and increased investment flow. India must reduce the risks to leverage the benefit of hyper globalism. Upskilling youth with new age technology can lead to reaping of rich demographic dividends while decreasing poverty.
Introduction
The Non-Aligned Movement was formed during the Cold War as an organization of States that did not seek to formally align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union, but sought to remain independent or neutral. The Movement has its origin in the Asia-Africa Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. “Ten Principles of Bandung”, were proclaimed at that Conference were guiding principles of NAM.
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Role of India as a non-aligned country
- As a leader of NAM, India’s response to the cold war power politics was two-fold
- India steered itself away from the great power politics, positioning itself as an ‘interested observer’.
- It raised its voice against the newly decolonized nations from joining the either bloc.
- In addition, India played a significant role in defining the NAM in very neat & precise terms, which was becoming less homogeneous due to coming together of countries of various different political systems & interests.
- India’s stand on various issues showed that the movement was neither ‘isolationism’ nor ‘passivity’.
- A/q to Nehru, non-alignment was not a policy of ‘fleeing away’. On the contrary, it is based on active intervention in world affairs but in a neutral and independent manner.
- The movement seeks to take a collective position on international issues and challenges faced by the developing world.
- Eg :Based on this idea, India led the NAM effort to resolve Iran-Iraq dispute.
- During the cold war, India made a, concerted effort to activate those regional & international organizations, which were not a part of the alliances led by US & USSR, thus maintaining the spirit of NAM.
Learnings from NAM India can apply in the present Russia-Ukraine conflict
- Multilateralism must be upheld and nations must display sensitivity and reciprocity in multilateral institutions like the United Nations Security Council and the WTO to cooperate for world prosperity.
- Rhetoric of New Cold War or Cold war 2.0 is on the unveil. Trade war, military aggression in South China Sea has become frequent.
- Non-alignment policy and peaceful co-existence can ensure against the threat of war.
- South-South cooperation: To prevent band wagoning against any nation in a conflict, all developing nations can rally behind peace and against ill-effects of war such as rising crude and inflation.
- Disarmament: In the General Assembly, India submitted a draft resolution declaring that the use of nuclear weapons would be against the charter of the United Nations and crime against humanity and should therefore be prohibited.
- Such stance by all nations can help prevent the Russia-Ukraine war from spiralling into a nuclear war.
- UNSC reforms: Right from its inception NAM was in the favour of UNSC reforms, it was against the domination of US and USSR. Russia itself is now party to war while being a member of UNSC whose responsibility is world peace. Representation to nations like India can remove such irony.
- Strive for multipolarity: India is striving hard for a multipolar world order and asserting itself as one of the players. Multi polar world order is very much closed to NAM principles.
Conclusion
The philosophy and ideology of ”Non alignment” lays emphasis on strategic independence and autonomy, and the ”Non-Aligned Movement” seeks to take a collective position on challenges faced by the developing world. These principles shall always remain relevant. NAM is a platform where India can assert its soft power and provide an active leadership and by being a torchbearer for smaller countries at multilateral platforms.
General Studies – 2
Introduction
The position of a Governor in the constitutional setup in India needs to be clearly understood in order to grasp the significance of the actions as well as responses of Governors in the politico-administrative contexts emerging from time to time in States. The Governor is an appointee of the President, which means the Union government. Although Article 154(1) of the Constitution vests in the Governor the executive power of the State, he is required to exercise that power in accordance with the Constitution. In other words, the Governor can act only on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
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Governor’s powers regarding bill passed by state legislature
Ordinary Bills
When a bill is sent to the governor after it is passed by state legislature, he can:
- Give his assent to the bill, or
- Withhold his assent to the bill, or
- Return the bill (if it is not a money bill) for reconsideration of the state legislature.
However, if the bill is passed again by the state legislature with or without amendments, the governor has to give his assent to the bill or
- Reserve the bill for the consideration of the president. In one case such reservation is obligatory, that is, where the bill passed by the state legislature endangers the position of the state high court.When the governor reserves a bill for the consideration of the President, he will not have any further role in the enactment of the bill.
- If the bill is returned by the President for the reconsideration of the House or Houses and is passed again, the bill must be presented again for the presidential assent only.
- If the President gives his assent to the bill, it becomes an act.
- This means that the assent of the Governor is no longer required.
Money Bill
- Every money bill, after it is passed by the state legislature (unicameral or bicameral), is presented to the governor for his assent.
- He has three alternatives:
- He may give his assent to the bill, the bill then becomes an act.
- He may withhold his assent to the bill, the bill then ends and does not become an act.
- He may reserve the bill for the consideration of the president.
- Thus, the governor cannot return a money bill for the reconsideration of the state legislature.
- Normally, the governor gives his assent to a money bill as it is introduced in the state legislature with his previous permission.
- When the governor reserves a money bill for the consideration of the President, he will not have any further role in the enactment of the bill.
- If the President gives his assent to the bill, it becomes an Act.
- This means that the assent of the governor is no longer required. The President also cannot return a money bill for the reconsideration of the state legislature (as in the case of the Parliament).
Significance of such powers of Governor
- Delays in granting assent: The governors sometimes sat over the Bills without giving assent or returning the Bills for an indefinite period, even though the Constitution required it to be done as soon as possible.
- The governors were also taking months together to reserve the Bills for the assent of the President even though it was to be done immediately.
- This erodes the authority of the legislatures and the governors, though heads of the state executive, are appointed by the Union government.
- Exceptional situations: In addition to above illustrated powers, the governor can also reserve the bill if it is of the following nature:
- Ultra-vires, that is, against the provisions of the Constitution.
- Opposed to the Directive Principles of State Policy.
- Against the larger interest of the country.
- Of grave national importance.
- Dealing with compulsory acquisition of property under Article 31A of the Constitution.
- Case studies
- Tamil Nadu Assembly in September, 2021 passed a bill seeking exemption for students from the state from the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) required for undergraduate medical college admissions.
- This Bill has been with Governor since then without rejection or acceptance.
- Indecision can prove costly.
- Manipur Speaker had not decided on defection, until Supreme Court forced him and bound him by giving a time frame. Justice can be denied in such cases to those who are affected.
- Tamil Nadu Assembly in September, 2021 passed a bill seeking exemption for students from the state from the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) required for undergraduate medical college admissions.
- Against the spirit of Constitution: Withholding of assent, though an option, is not normally exercised by Governors because it will be an extremely unpopular step.
- Besides, withholding assent to a Bill by the Governor, an appointee of the President, neutralises the entire legislative exercise by an elected legislature enjoying the support of the people.
Conclusion
Giving assent to a Bill passed by the legislature is a normal constitutional act performed by the Governor. But of late, even such normal acts have become a source of confrontation between State governments and the Governors. The conduct of Governors in certain States follows a definite pattern which causes a great deal of disquiet to elected governments as well as to those who have faith in the constitutional order.
Under Article 361, the President or a Governor is not answerable to any court for anything done in the exercise and performance of their powers and duties. But when a Governor does not take any decision on a Bill which is put up for his assent, he is not acting in exercise and performance of the duties cast upon him.
Introduction
The Indian judiciary has a host of problems acting as hurdles in the speedy delivery of justice. Pendency of cases is one such problem that has been ailing the judiciary for a long time along with infrastructure deficit. There is already a loss of trust of people in judiciary and Rule of Law, due to which citizens have to settle matter out of court, even if it is not in their interest.
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Background
- The retirements in the topmost rung of the judiciary in 2022 would encompass changes in the powerful Supreme Court Collegium and see two new Chief Justices in a span of months.
- The working judicial strength is 32 against the sanctioned strength of 34.
- The Supreme Court’s statistics show that 70,362 cases are pending with it as on April 1, 2022.
- While 52,110 are admission matters, 18,522 are regular hearing cases.
- The number of Constitution Bench cases (both main and connected matters) total 422.
Causes for huge pendency of cases
- Shifting role of SC: The key reason for the mounting of pending cases can be attributed to shifting the role of the Supreme Court from adjudicating cases of constitutional significance into a regular court of appeals.
- According to legal experts, most of the cases that the Supreme Court was handling daily are either appeals from various high courts or cases of gross violation of individual’s fundamental rights. But this role was never meant for the apex court.
- Shortage of judges: From 1950 to 1921, the number of Supreme Court judges has increased nearly four times. Even then, case pendency has steadily kept rising.
- Around 5,580 or 25% of posts are lying empty in the subordinate courts, which leads to poor Judges to Population Ratio, as India has only 20 judges per million population. Earlier, Law Commission had recommended 50 judges per million.
- Frequent adjournments: The laid down procedure of allowing a maximum of three adjournments per case is not followed in over 50 per cent of the matters being heard by courts, leading to rising pendency of cases.
- Low budgetary allocation leading to poor infrastructure: India spends only about 0.09% of its GDP to maintain the judicial infrastructure. Infrastructure status of lower courts of the country is miserably grim due to which they fail to deliver quality judgements.
- A 2016 report published by the Supreme Court showed that existing infrastructure could accommodate only 15,540 judicial officers against the all-India sanctioned strength of 20,558.
- Burden of government cases: Statistics provided by LIMBS shows that the Centre and the States were responsible for over 46% of the pending cases in Indian courts.
- Special leave petition: Cases in the Supreme Court, currently comprises to 40% of the court’s pendency. It is because of frivolous PILs and various government policies which are challenged by the people that takes up most of judiciary’s time
- Judges Vacation: Supreme Court’s works on average for 188 days a year, while apex court rules specify minimum of 225 days of work.
- Lack of court management systems: Courts have created dedicated posts for court managers to help improve court operations, optimize case movement and judicial time.
- However, only few courts have filled up such posts so far.
- Inefficient investigation: Police are quite often handicapped in undertaking effective investigation for want of modern and scientific tools to collect evidences.
Impact of pendency and other issues plaguing judiciary
- Justice denied: According to Economic Survey 2018-19, there are about 3.5 crore cases pending in the judicial system, especially in district and subordinate courts, which leads to actualisation of the maxim “Justice delayed is justice denied.”
- Huge Undertrials: India has one of the world’s largest number of undertrial prisoners.
- According to NCRB -Prison Statistics India (2015), 67.2% of our total prison population comprises undertrial prisoners.
- Corruption, huge workload and accountability of police is a major hurdle in speedy and transparent delivery of justice.
- Ineffectiveness: The purpose of the criminal justice system was to protect the rights of the innocents and punish the guilty, but nowadays the system has become a tool of harassment of common people.
Measures needed
- Improving infrastructure for quality justice: The Parliamentary Standing Committee which presented its report on Infrastructure Development and Strengthening of Subordinate Courts, suggested:
- States should provide suitable land for construction of court buildings etc. It should undertake vertical construction in light of shortage of land.
- Timeline set out for computerization of all the courts, as a necessary step towards setting up of e- courts.
- Addressing the Issue of Vacancies: Ensure the appointments of the judges be done in an efficient way by arriving at an optimal judge strength to handle the cases pending in the system.
- The 120th Law Commission of India report for the first time, suggested a judge strength fixation formula.
- Supreme Court and High Courts should appoint efficient and experienced judges as Ad-hoc judges in accordance with the Constitution.
- All India Judicial Service, which would benefit the subordinate judiciary by increasing quality of judges and help reduce the pendency.
- Timeframe to dispose of cases: Having a definite time frame to dispose the cases by setting annual targets and action plans for the subordinate judiciary and the High Courts. The judicial officers could be issued a strict code of conduct, to ensure that the duties are adequately performed by the officials.
- Strict regulation of adjournments and imposition of exemplary costs for seeking it on flimsy grounds especially at the trial stage and not permitting dilution of time frames specified in Civil Procedure Code.
- Better Court Management System & Reliable Data Collection: For this categorization of cases on the basis of urgency and priority along with bunching of cases should be done.
- Use of Information technology (IT) solutions: The use of technology for tracking and monitoring cases and in providing relevant information to make justice litigant friendly.
- All the courts in the country must switch to a hybrid virtual mode immediately and start disposing cases.
- Process reengineering: Involves redesigning of core business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in productivity and quality by incorporating the use of technology in court rules. It will include:
- Electronic filing of cases: e-Courts are a welcome step in this direction, as they give case status and case history of all the pending cases across High courts and Subordinate courts bringing ease of access to information.
- Revamping of National Judicial Data Grid by introducing a new type of search known as elastic search, which is closer to the artificial intelligence.
- Alternate dispute resolution (ADR): As stated in the Conference on National Initiative to Reduce Pendency and Delay in Judicial System- Legal Services Authorities should undertake pre-litigation mediation so that the inflow of cases into courts can be regulated.
- The Lok Adalat should be organized regularly for settling civil and family matters.
- Gram Nyayalayas, as an effective way to manage small claim disputes from rural areas which will help in decreasing the workload of the judicial institution.
- Village Legal Care & Support Centre can also be established by the High Courts to work at grass root level to make the State litigation friendly.
Conclusion
The fundamental requirement of a good judicial administration is accessibility, affordability and speedy justice, which will not be realized until and unless the justice delivery system is made within the reach of the individual in a time bound manner and within a reasonable cost. Therefore, continuous formative assessment is the key to strengthen and reinforce the justice delivery system in India.
Introduction
India and France have traditionally close and friendly relations. In 1998, the two countries entered into Strategic Partnership which is based on three pillars of defence cooperation, space cooperation and civil nuclear cooperation. In the recent years, there have been increasing convergences between both the countries.
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India-France: Convergences and shared common beliefs
- Partnership in the Indian Ocean: France was the first European country to launch an Indo-Pacific strategy and India is a key pillar in that strategy.
- Thus, the relationship between India France has grown beyond bilateral to focus and includes intensified maritime and naval cooperation in Indian Ocean and more broadly the Indo Pacific.
- France has specific interests in the Indian Ocean due to its overseas territories (Reunion Island and Mayotte) home to over a million French citizens, and more than 10% of the Indian Ocean’s surface.
- Strategic convergence: On the regional front, France is as concerned as India at the rising Chinese profile in the Indo-Pacific. Both would like to work to offer credible alternatives to Chinese economic and military assistance in the region.
- On the international front, both are deeply concerned about the breakdown of the rules based global order.
- Global cooperation: After their joint efforts to limit climate change and develop the International Solar Alliance, India and France have turned to more ambitious ideas. In this direction, both countries issued the road map on cybersecurity and digital technology.
- France’s support on international platforms: France is among the countries that have consistently supported India’s permanent membership to UNSC.
- Also, France has offered unstinted support for India on targeting the sources of violent extremism in Pakistan and helped limit the international backlash against India’s effort to rewrite the rules of engagement in J&K.
- Nuclear Cooperation: After the nuclear tests in May 1998 when India declared itself a nuclear weapon state, France was the first major power to open dialogue and displayed a far greater understanding of India’s security compulsions compared to other countries. Both signed, civil nuclear cooperation agreement in 2008.
- “Industrial Way Forward Agreement” was signed in 2018, between France and India for the construction of six nuclear reactors at Jaitapur.
- Defence Cooperation: France remains a vital source of arms supply to India. Defence cooperation with France began in the 1950s when India acquired the Ouragan aircraft and continued with the Mystères, Jaguar, Rafale, Scorpène submarines, etc.
- Both countries also signed reciprocal logistics support agreement to receive logistical support, supplies and services from each other during authorised port visits, joint exercises, etc.
- Cooperation in Space and Technology has continued since the 1960s when France helped India set up the Sriharikota launch site, followed by liquid engine development and hosting of payloads. Currently, other projects include joint satellite mission – TRISHNA (for eco-system stress and water use monitoring) and also accommodation of French instrument on India’s OCEANSAT-3 satellite.
- Counter terrorism: Terror strikes in France by home-grown terrorists provide much scope for counterterrorism cooperation, in terms of both intelligence-sharing and de-radicalisation strategies.
- Urban planning: Given its expertise in the sphere of urban planning France is also helping in the Smart Cities Mission. The three such smart cities are Chandigarh, Nagpur and Puducherry.
Way Forward
- Even though above specified areas provided a robust basis for engagement, it remained primarily at a government-to-government level.
- In recent years, it was clear that for a wider partnership, strengthening business-to-business and people-to-people relationships was essential.
- Also, the trade between India and France, although growing, is yet to reach its potential. • By leveraging the potential of convergences, France can be India’s gateway to Europe and India France’s first strategic partner in Asia.
- The underpinnings of global geopolitics are being rapidly altered with China’s rise, the West being consumed by internal problems and Russia, the “America First” priorities of the US Administration, and growing threats to globalization.
- With such background, France and India have a shared interest in developing a coalition of middle powers with a shared commitment for a rule-based multipolar world order.
General Studies – 3
Introduction
The Reserve Bank of India had set up a Regulations Review Authority (RRA 2.0), initially for a period of one year from May 01, 2021. The main objective was to reduce the compliance burden on regulated entities (REs). RRA 2.0 was set up to review the regulatory instructions, remove redundant and duplicate instructions and reduce the compliance burden on Regulated Entities (REs).
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Updates of RRA so far
- The RRA had recommended the withdrawal of 150 circulars in the first tranche of recommendations in November 2021 and 100 circulars in the second tranche of recommendations in February 2022.
- In the second tranche, the RRA had also recommended discontinuation/ merger/ conversion to online submission of 65 returns along with the creation of a new ‘Regulatory Reporting’ link on the RBI website to consolidate information relating to regulatory reporting.
Need for streamlining of regulations and reducing compliance burden of banking sector
- Mandatory fund raising via bonds:Recent data from the central bank and Securities and Exchange Board of India (Sebi) corroborates the fact that the country’s overall bank lending pie has reduced for creamy well-rated companies.
- Corporate current account closures: This decision adversely affected customers who lost out on the superior services of smaller but more efficient private and foreign banks, while lenders lost good business. Even public sector banks (PSBs) were affected, as they would be required to surrender accounts of government entities if no RBI relaxation is forthcoming.
- Priority Sector Lending: Being obliged to lend ₹40 of every ₹100 to lower yielding and ever riskier priority-sector assets, commercial banks have lost market share to nimbler fintech and non-bank financial firms.
Role and Area of focus of RRA 2.0
- The RRA 2.0 will focus on streamlining regulatory instructions and reducing the compliance burden of regulated entities by simplifying procedures and reducing reporting requirements, wherever possible.
- It shall intend to make regulatory and supervisory instructions more effective by removing redundancies and duplication, if any.
- It will look to reduce the compliance burden on regulated entities by streamlining the reporting mechanism, revoking obsolete instructions if necessary and obviating paper-based submission of returns wherever possible.
- It will also be tasked with obtaining feedback from regulated entities on simplification of procedures and enhancement of ease of compliance.
- It will examine and suggest the changes required in the dissemination process of RBI circulars and instructions.
Way forward
- The RRA and regulators need to extend the bond market fund-sourcing benefit to all investment-grade companies and also consider progressive relaxation of the stipulated 25% reservation mandate to ensure a level playing field for all participants.
- The RRA could suggest better digital information sharing and monitoring mechanisms among banks to enforce credit discipline, even if businesses are allowed to operate multiple current accounts.
- The RRA could revisit the priority-sector lending norms to reduce directed sub-targets and overall targets for banks and/or lower the credit-risk weightages on specific short tenor, self-liquidating bank facilities.
- For instance, reduced risk weights on MSME bill-financing through TReDS exchanges can lower capital consumption for banks and also enhance credit flows across the priority manufacturing ecosystem.
- The RRA should tackle evolving technology and market challenges by drawing up regulatory templates that encompass:
- a digital banking framework for universal and wholesale bank licences;
- a blueprint for a central bank digital currency as fiat money;
- a special dispensation, put in place jointly with the Centre after a feasibility study, that would allow profit-oriented crude-oil-price hedging by oil companies, which along with tax cuts could help cool fuel prices in India;
- a policy of light regulation for the launch of prescribed banking services by neo-banks, fintech firms and other technology companies.
Introduction
Heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the pre-monsoon (April to June) summer season. According to Indian Meteorological Department, Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or more for coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions.
India has been in the grip of what seems like an eternity of heatwaves. April temperatures over north-west and central India are the highest in 122 years.
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Impacts of Heatwaves
On human health:
- Extreme heat can lead to dangerous, even deadly, consequences, including heat stress and heatstroke.
- Severe heat stroke can lead to multiple organ failure, seizures, and death.
- Children, the elderly and those with pre-existing morbidities are particularly vulnerable.
- Heat wave also cause death of cattle and wildlife besides affecting animals in various zoos in India.
Social:
- Heatwaves are associated with increased rates of heat stress and heat stroke, worsening heart failure and acute kidney injury from dehydration.
- Children, the elderly and those with pre-existing morbidities are particularly vulnerable.
- Promote the spread of diseases like cholera and dengue fever across endemic areas.
- Increased poverty due to failure of crops and reduced economic activities.
Economic:
- The Lancet countdown on health and climatehas reported that India was particularly affected by the rising frequency of heatwave events and lost about 75 billion hours of work, a significant part of it in the agricultural sector.
- India lost nearly 75 billion hours of labour in 2017 as a result of rising temperatures.
- This made sustained work increasingly difficult and negatively affecting workers’ output.
- The agriculture sector experienced the largest increase in labour loss.
- Almost 153 billion hours of labour were lost globally in 2017 due to heat, an increase of 62 billion hours from the year 2000.
- Agriculture sector was more vulnerable compared to the industrial and service sectors because workers there were more likely to be exposed to heat.
- Since 1990, every region of the globe has become steadily more vulnerable to extreme increases of heat.
Way forward:
- In 2016, the National Disaster Management Agency prepared guidelines for state governments to formulate action plans for the prevention and management of heat waves, outlining four key strategies:
- Forecasting heat waves and enabling an early warning system
- Building capacity of healthcare professionals to deal with heat wave-related emergencies
- Community outreach through various media
- Inter-agency cooperation as well as engagement with other civil society organizations in the region.
- Scientific Approach:
- Climate data from the last 15-20 years can be correlated with the mortality and morbidity data to prepare a heat stress index and city-specific threshold.
- Vulnerable areas and population could be identified by using GIS and satellite imagery for targeted actions.
- Advance implementation of local Heat Action Plans, plus effective inter-agency coordination is a vital response which the government can deploy in order to protect vulnerable groups.
- This will require identification of “heat hot spots”, analysis of meteorological data and allocation of resources to crisis-prone areas.
- The India Cooling Action Plan must emphasize the urgency and need for better planning, zoning and building regulations to prevent Urban Heat Islands.
- Provision of public messaging (radio, TV), mobile phone-based text messages, automated phone calls and alerts.
- Promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
- Popularisation of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water storage tanks and insulating housing materials.
Value addition
State actions towards Heat waves assessing their geographic variations:
- Key element of many states response strategy has been enhancing health risk communications on the impact of heat waves and how citizens can take simple steps to reduce their exposure and protect their health.
- Andhra Pradesh:
- Andhra Pradesh has strong inter-agency coordination across multiple departments
- Andhra Pradesh has also set up 1168 stations approximately one for every hundred square kilometers for weather forecasting and modelling.
- It has developed a mobile app to disseminate information about heat waves and advice on precautionary steps; the app is available in English and Telugu.
- Telangana:
- Telangana developed one of the first state-wide heat action plans in 2016.
- The state is now integrating the heat action plan with its action plan on climate change.
- The Telangana plan focuses on training district officials and health staff
- Odisha:
- It has declared heat waves as a state specific disaster.
- It is developing local thresholds and analyzing vulnerability of communities in different parts of the state.
- Odisha’s activities focus on awareness raising, capacity building and training of healthcare staff, interagency coordination, and enabling provision of water for vulnerable communities.
- Various states and municipalities have introduced early warning systems, public awareness campaigns and increased training for medical professionals.
- Ahmedabad, Nagpur and Odisha have made pioneering efforts with respect to heat-health warning systems (HHWS).
- Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) has adopted a heat action plan which necessitates measures such as building heat shelters, ensuring availability of water and removing neonatal ICU from the top floor of hospitals.
- Such warning systems include providing weather forecasts in advance, issuing warnings to people, providing readiness of emergency response systems, and preparing doctors and health facilities to handle a sudden influx of patients. Warnings facilitate people in taking appropriate actions against heat-related harm.
- Access to cool environments remains the mainstay of preventing heat stress:
- In rural areas, where electricity access is a challenge, supplementing power supply of primary health centres with solar-based systems should be undertaken. Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and Tripura have already deployed such systems.
Introduction
Invasive alien species are plants, animals, pathogens and other organisms that are non-native to an ecosystem, and which may cause economic or environmental harm or adversely affect human health. In particular, they impact adversely upon biodiversity, including decline or elimination of native species – through competition, predation, or transmission of pathogens – and the disruption of local ecosystems and ecosystem functions. Examples: Needle Bush, Goat weed, Prickly Poppy, Black Mimosa.
Since the 17th century, invasive alien species have contributed to nearly 40% of all animal extinctions for which the cause is known (CBD, 2006).
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Threats posed by Invasive alien species:
Threats to Environment:
Biodiversity is essential for the functioning of the ecosystems that provide vital resources such as food, water, fuel, building material and traditional medicines for millions of people. Invasive species alter and degrade the environment, and have a negative effect on both native species and the people who live and work there. The impacts of invasive species include:
- Reduced biodiversity
- Decreased availability and quality of key natural resources
- Water shortages
- Increased frequency of wildfires and flooding
- Pollution caused by overuse of chemicals to control infestations
Threats to native species:
- India is endowed with 2,319 species of finfish.
- Studies from several parts of the country show that the diversity of freshwater fish is depleting at an alarming pace due to the invasion of commercially important and ornamental exotic fish species
- Many native species, especially Indian major carps in various riverine systems, have been affected because of the invasion of exotic fish species such as Nile tilapia, African catfish, Thai pangus and common carp.
- Apart from commercially important exotic species, ornamental fishes such as guppy, piranha, suckermouth, blue perch, goldfish and platy have been recorded in rivers, lakes, traditional village ponds and other inland freshwater bodies. These also accelerate the extinction of natural varieties from local water bodies.
- The exotic ornamental Amazon sailfin catfish poses a serious threat to the native fish species of Vandiyur Lake, Madurai.
- The biomass of the Amazon sailfin catfish is statistically significant compared to the indigenous varieties. This clearly shows the negative impact of this exotic aquarium fish on inland aquaculture in terms of diminished production/catch of edible fish.
- Thus more than 15 exotic ornamental species have successfully established a reproductive population in our freshwater bodies and still don’t know the magnitude of the impact of this species on the native diversity of fish.
Economic threats:
Agriculture, forestry and fishing are of huge importance to the economies of developing countries. Invasive species affect the productivity of these systems, and limit the ability of producers to access export markets. This hinders sustainable economic growth and development. The impacts of invasive species include:
- Value and quality of land degraded
- Lower crop productivity
- High cost of controlling pests, weeds and diseases
- Routes to domestic and global markets blocked
- Livestock forced into marginal, sub-optimal grazing lands
Social threats:
Invasive species are a major threat to the livelihoods of the people who live in the areas they colonize. Through disrupting ecosystems, invasive plants, insects and diseases impair many of the things humans need to sustain a good quality of life – including food and shelter, health, security and social interaction. The impacts of invasive species include:
- Livelihood options narrowed
- Food security decreased
- Recreational and social opportunities limited
- Risks to human and animal health
- Increased social challenges
Way forward
- The most cost-effective measure to address the impacts from IAS is to prevent their introduction.
- This can be achieved by establishing effective and well-resourced biosecurity measures to manage priority pathways of introduction, supported by early warning systems and rapid eradication capacity.
- Control, containment and – where feasible – eradication, also need to be undertaken to mitigate the impacts from established IAS, including those whose impacts are likely to increase due to climate change.
- It is essential that a cross-sectoral approach is taken in IAS prevention and management measures. This needs to include the environment, human health, agriculture, fisheries, customs and transport government departments, along with key private sector bodies and civil society.
- Governments, donors and agencies that fund and implement projects, including projects supporting the SDGs, must ensure that current and potential impacts of IAS are understood so that relevant prevention and management measures can be incorporated into projects.
Conclusion
Ecosystems need to be prioritized according to their vulnerability to climate change and IAS, making it possible to establish measures that will prevent IAS introduction. This should include establishing effective biosecurity measures to manage priority pathways of introduction, supported by early warning and rapid eradication to tackle alien species before they become invasive.
Introduction
Indian Government had approved the creation of the post of Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) and the Department of Military Affairs as the fifth department within the Ministry of Defence. The CDS is be a four-star General/Officer who will act as the Principal Military Advisor to the Defence Minister on all tri-services (Army, Navy and Indian Air Force) matters. Chief of Defence staff (CDS) solves issues in planning, budgeting and force structuring for a military based on a coherent strategic vision.
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Rationale behind creation of CDS
- Increasing demands
- With the increasing complexity of security challenges in the modern warfare arena, there was a need for an integrated approach towards defence strategy.
- There are communication issues, budgetary overruns by individual commands, inter-alia which demanded joint working of Army, Navy and Air Force.
- Jointness:
- CDS will ensure and promote thejointness (functioning together of the three services independently) through joint planning of command operations, logistics, transport, training, communications, repairs and maintenance of the three services within three years of operation.
- This will ensure close cooperation and collaborationamongst the defence forces.
- Integration:
- There is a need for inducing integration (putting together the three Services at different levels and placing them under one commander) in different services.
- However, there is a difference between integration and jointnessof command.
- Lack of Resources:
- CDS as‘first among equals’ will act as a single point advisor and could be held accountable for his actions and decisions taken.
- Restructured military commands for optimal utilization of resources will avoid unnecessary duplication and wasteful expenditure.
- Expertise:
- Being into the services for so long, the expertise and knowledge of CDS to deal with the adverse situations could be appropriately utilized in order to achieve the desired aims, creating an architecture for joint commands.
Responsibility of CDS:
- CDS will administer the tri-services organisations/agencies related to Cyber and Space.
- CDS will look into monitoring of contracts, promoting the use of indigenous equipment, leveraging of current systems and transforming them, and prioritising the procurement of defence equipment in a better way.
- He will also assigninter-services prioritisation to capital acquisition proposals based on the anticipated budget.
- CDS will bring reforms to augment the combat capabilities of the forces and is expected to evaluate plans for ‘out of area contingencies’ for countries in India’s neighbourhood.
Challenges:
- Mandate for defence of the nation is still with the Department of Defence but the procurement process except capital acquisitions lies with CDS.
- This gives birth to dichotomy as on one hand CDS is expected to prioritise the expenditure between the three services but the wherewithal still lies with the Defence Secretary.
- Hence, the budgetary power still lies with the bureaucratswhich demands timely intervention by the government.
- CDS has the mandate of force planning(planning associated with the creation and maintenance of military capabilities).
- Changing role of warfare- being more technology-oriented over rationalisation/rightsizing of manpower needs to be addressed properly.
- India faces frequent conflicts on its land frontiers. Balancing this realisation that both maritime and air power are going to play an increasingly important rolein India’s rise as a leading power will be among the initial strategic challenges that would be faced by the CDS.
- The government is yet to take a call on who the new CDS will be, despite the post lying vacant for nearly five months.
How do other countries work?
- All major countries, especially the nuclear weapon states, have a CDS. The U.K. from which the Indian armed forces and the Defence Ministry are modelled on has a Permanent Secretary, equivalent to the Defence Secretary, and also a CDS.
- The U.K. Government guidelines state that the CDS is the professional head of the British armed forces and, as military strategic commander, is responsible for how operations are carried out. He is also the most senior military adviser to the Secretary of State for Defence and the Prime Minister.
- The Permanent Secretary is the government’s principal civilian adviser on Defence, has primary responsibility for policy, finance and planning, and is also the Departmental Accounting Officer.
Way forward
- The appointment of a CDS, can lead to the development of theatre commands in the future.
- Theaterisation has its advantages but the debate among the services on the need for such a move is far from over.
- The success of the CDS will depend on the kind of powers the person appointed to the post enjoys. For the CDS to be effective, he would need to have control on the decision-making apparatus.
- If the Ministry of Defence has the power to overrule the CDS, especially in the case of procurement of equipment for the three services, the move may yield low dividends.
- The positives that this move may have can’t be ascertained until the government reveals the nuts and bolts of its plan.
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