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NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same
Answer the following questions in 150 words:
General Studies – 1
Reference: The Hindu , Insights on India
Introduction
Heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum temperature that occurs during the pre-monsoon (April to June) summer season. According to Indian Meteorological Department, Heat wave is considered if maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or more for coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) announced that India will see more than average heat wave days in this year’s hot weather season (April to June).
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Reasons for India to experience increasing instances of heatwaves
- Magnified effect of paved and concrete surfaces in urban areas and a lack of tree cover.
- Urban heat island effects can make ambient temperatures feel 3 to 4 degrees more than what they are.
- More heat waves were expected as globally temperatures had risen by an average 0.8 degrees in the past 100 years. Night-time temperatures are rising too.
- Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly increasingly frequent globally due to climate change.
- High intensity of UV rays in medium-high heat wave zone.
- Combination of exceptional heat stress and a predominantly rural population makes India vulnerable to heat waves.
Climate change and Heatwaves
- Climate change is making heat waves phenomenon more frequent and severe
- Due to climate change, periods of hot days in heat wave conditions stretch out longer in places like South Asia.
- Climate models reveal that future heatwaves will have a more intense geographic pattern. The world will experience more intense, more frequent, and longer-lasting heat waves in the second half of the 21st century.
- Increased anthropogenic activities causing increased greenhouse gas emissions show that heatwaves will be more severe.
- Heatwaves and droughts, as a result, minimise ecosystem carbon sequestration or carbon uptake.
- This will cause changes in the ecosystem’s carbon cycle feedback because there will be less vegetation to hold the carbon from the atmosphere, which will only contribute more to atmospheric warming.
- Due to climate change, the problem of heat waves is also becoming widespread across the country, affecting not only the typical hot spots in the northwest and southeast but also regions that aren’t used to seeing so much extreme heat.
- The effects of heat waves are even more stark because of a lack of rainfall so far this season due climate change.
Measures to mitigate heat waves:
- Switching to lighter-colored paving or porous green roads and cool roofs, to reflect more solar radiation.
- For instance, after a severe 2010 heat wave, the city of Ahmedabad implemented a Heat Action Plan, including a cool-roofs program; research has shown this plan has prevented thousands of deaths.
- Cities could increase their share of tree cover, which is significantly lower than what’s required to maintain an ecological balance.
- People in urban areas could be encouraged to grow climbing plants and curtains of vegetation outside their windows.
- Greenbelts around cities, for wind paths, would allow the passage of exhaust heat from urban air conditioners and automobiles.
- Finally, air-quality standards should be enforced rigorously and continuously—not just when air pollution reaches hazardous levels.
Way forward:
- In 2016, the National Disaster Management Agency prepared guidelines for state governments to formulate action plans for the prevention and management of heat waves, outlining four key strategies:
- Forecasting heat waves and enabling an early warning system
- Building capacity of healthcare professionals to deal with heat wave-related emergencies
- Community outreach through various media
- Inter-agency cooperation as well as engagement with other civil society organizations in the region.
- Scientific Approach:
- Climate data from the last 15-20 years can be correlated with the mortality and morbidity data to prepare a heat stress index and city-specific threshold.
- Vulnerable areas and population could be identified by using GIS and satellite imagery for targeted actions.
- Advance implementation of local Heat Action Plans, plus effective inter-agency coordination is a vital response which the government can deploy in order to protect vulnerable groups.
- This will require identification of “heat hot spots”, analysis of meteorological data and allocation of resources to crisis-prone areas.
- The India Cooling Action Planmust emphasize the urgency and need for better planning, zoning and building regulations to prevent Urban Heat Islands.
- Provision of public messaging (radio, TV), mobile phone-based text messages, automated phone calls and alerts.
- Promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
- Popularization of simple design features such as shaded windows, underground water storage tanks and insulating housing materials.
Reference: Down to Earth
Introduction
Deep-sea mining is the process of retrieving mineral deposits from the deep seabed the ocean below 200 metres and covers two-thirds of the total seafloor. According to International Seabed Authority (ISA), an agency under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) for monitoring all activities related to mineral resources in the deep sea, the international seabed is the area that lies beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and represents around 50% of the total area of the world’s oceans.
Deep-sea mining involves extracting ores rich in cobalt, manganese, zinc and other rare metals from the seafloor. Experts believe they contain critical minerals required for the production of batteries for electric vehicles and renewable energy capacity, as well as smartphones and laptops. More than 1.5 million square kilometres of the international seabed have been set aside for mineral exploration.
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Issues posed by Deep sea mining
- Environmental impact:
- According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), these deep remote locations can be home to unique species that have adapted themselves to conditions such as poor oxygen and sunlight, high pressure and extremely low temperatures.
- Such mining expeditions can make them go extinct even before they are known to science.
- The deep sea’s biodiversity and ecology remain poorly understood, making it difficult to assess the environmental impact and frame adequate guidelines.
- Environmentalists are also worried about the sediment plumes that will be generated as the suspended particles can rise to the surface harming the filter feeders in the upper ocean layers.
- Additional concerns have been raised about the noise and light pollution from the mining vehicles and oil spills from the operating vessels.
- Technology:
- The specialized drills and extraction-technology that would be required pulling out the metals from the deep sea would develop a major technical challenge.
- Commercial Viability:
- The latest estimate from the ISA says it will be commercially viable only if about three million tonnes are mined per year. More studies are being carried out to understand how the technology can be scaled up and used efficiently.
International conventions regulating deep sea mining
- The Jamaica-based International Seabed Authority was established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). It holds authority over the ocean floors outside of its 167 member states’ Exclusive Economic Zones.
- At the IUCN World Conservation Congress in Marseille (September 2021), IUCN Members adopted Resolution 122 to protect deep-ocean ecosystems and biodiversity through a moratorium on deep-sea mining unless and until several conditions are met.
- The UN High Seas Treaty,to protect the world’s oceans outside national boundaries.
National Conventions
- Draft Deep Seabed Mining Regulations, 2021:It has been formulated by the Indian government to provide a legal framework for the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources in the country’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
Conclusion
There is an urgent need for an international charter as in the absence of a clear charter, deep sea mining operations could cause irreversible damage to a little understood ecology. A new set of exploration guidelines must be worked out with discussions involving multi-stakeholders like ISA, IUCN, UNCLOS, littoral nations etc.
General Studies – 2
Reference: Indian Express , Insights on India , Insights on India
Introduction
The separation of powers is a foundational principle that allocates distinct functions to different branches of government. These branches are:
- Legislative: Responsible for creating laws.
- Executive: Tasked with implementing laws.
- Judicial: Interprets laws and ensures their constitutionality.
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Importance of Separation of Powers:
- Checks and Balances:
- Each branch acts as a check on the others, preventing any one branch from becoming too powerful.
- Ensures accountability and transparency.
- Preventing Concentration of Power:
- No single branch dominates, safeguarding citizens’ rights.
- Promotes a healthy democratic system.
Judicial Review: Upholding Constitutional Principles
Judicial review empowers the judiciary to assess the validity of laws, executive actions, and government decisions. It ensures that no branch exceeds its constitutional boundaries. In India, judicial review is considered a basic feature of the Constitution (e.g., Indira Gandhi vs. Raj Narain case).
Role and Importance of Judicial Review:
- Constitutional Adjudication:
- Courts examine the constitutionality of legislative acts.
- Invalidates laws that violate fundamental principles.
- Balancing Power:
- Courts prevent executive and legislative overreach.
- Uphold citizens’ rights.
- Examples of Judicial Review in India:
- Shankari Prasad v. Union of India: Asserted Parliament’s amendment power.
- Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala: Defined the limits of amending the Constitution.
- Minerva Mills v. Union of India: Struck down laws violating fundamental rights.
- R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu: Upheld the primacy of the Constitution.
Indian Examples of Judicial Review
- Mithu v. State of Punjab:
- Supreme Court declared Section 303 of the Indian Penal Code unconstitutional.
- Upheld the right to life and personal liberty.
- Ninth Schedule Cases:
- Courts review laws placed in the Ninth Schedule (initially immune from judicial scrutiny).
- I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu clarified that even Ninth Schedule laws can be reviewed.
- Public Interest Litigation (PIL):
- Allows courts to intervene in public issues without traditional locus standi.
- Ensures judicial review extends beyond individual grievances.
Conclusion
Separation of powers and judicial review are cornerstones of our constitutional democracy. They prevent tyranny, maintain a balance of authority, and protect citizens’ liberties. As the judiciary continues to interpret and uphold constitutional values, it reinforces the democratic fabric of our nation.
General Studies – 3
Reference: Indian Express/ , Insights on India
Introduction
A glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) is a release of meltwater from a moraine- or ice-dam glacial lake due to dam failure. GLOFs often result in catastrophic flooding downstream, with major geomorphic and socioeconomic impacts.
Glacial lakes form when a glacier retreats, leaving the debris mass at the end of the glacier – the end moraine – exposed. The moraine wall can act as a natural dam, trapping the meltwater from the glacier and leading to the formation of a lake. The moraine dams are composed of unconsolidated boulders, gravel, sand, and silt. As with landslide dams, they can eventually break catastrophically, leading to a glacial lake outburst flood or GLOF.
Rising temperatures have increased the risk of glacial lake bursts of the kind that devastated the Kedarnath valley in 2013 and parts of Chamoli in 2021. Uttarakhand has commissioned a GLOF risk-assessment study.
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Background
- Fourteen people have died, and 102, including 23 Army personnel, are missing in Sikkim after the burst of the South Lhonak Lake, a glacial lake in North Sikkim, due to heavy rains.
- The released water created flash floods in four districts, including Mangan, Gangtok, Pakyong, and Namchi, through the Teesta River.
India’s vulnerabilities to GLOF
- In August 2014, a glacial lake outburst flood hit the village of Gya in Ladakh, destroying houses, fields and bridges.
- Many settlements at Chungthang are potentially exposed to the future GLOF of South Lohnak Lake, one of the fastest-growing glacial lakes in Sikkim,
- Several Indian states are considered vulnerable as there are 9,575 glaciers in the Himalayan region contiguous to the country.
- According to an estimate, over 200 of these are susceptible to outbursts.
- Research by a group of scientists last year found that the highest GLOF risk currently is in the eastern Himalayan region where the risk level is at least twice that in adjacent regions.
o The scientists were of the view that the possibility of hazards in the future in this zone would “almost triple” due to more lake formations.
- In the Indian Himalayan region, the first GLOF was reported in 1926 in Jammu and Kashmir.
- In the 1980s, scientists observed two instances of sudden emptying of moraine-dammed lakes in Himachal Pradesh.
- In 2013, Uttarakhand faced an unprecedented flood after the Chorabari glacier melted, leaving a death toll of more than 5,000 people.
Preparedness to handle disaster of GLOF
NDMA guidelines are extensively given to handle GLOF disasters as follows.
- Identifying Potentially Dangerous Lakes: Potentially dangerous lakes can be identified based on field observations, records of past events, geomorphologic and geotechnical characteristics of the lake/dam and surroundings, and other physical conditions.
- Use of Technology: Promoting use of Synthetic-Aperture Radar imagery (a form of radar that is used to create two-dimensional images) to automatically detect changes in water bodies, including new lake formations, during the monsoon months.
o Methods and protocols could also be developed to allow remote monitoring of lake bodies from space.
- Channeling Potential Floods: To manage lakes structurally, the NDMA recommends reducing the volume of water with methods such as controlled breaching, pumping or siphoning out water, and making a tunnel through the moraine barrier or under an ice dam.
- Uniform Codes for Construction Activity: Developing a broad framework for infrastructure development, construction and excavation in vulnerable zones.
o There is a need to accept procedures for land use planning in the GLOF prone areas.
- Enhancing Early Warning Systems (EWS): The number of implemented and operational GLOF EWS is very small, even at the global scale.
o In the Himalayan region, there are at three reported instances (two in Nepal and one in China) of implementation of sensor- and monitoring-based technical systems for GLOF early warning.
- Training Local Manpower: Apart from pressing specialized forces such as National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), ITBP and the Army, NDMA has emphasized the need for trained local manpower.
o It has been observed that over 80% of search and rescue is carried out by the local community before the intervention of the state machinery and specialized search and rescue teams.
o The local teams could also assist in planning and setting up emergency shelters, distributing relief packages, identifying missing people, and addressing the needs for food, healthcare, water supply etc.
- Comprehensive Alarm Systems: Besides classical alarming infrastructure consisting of acoustic alarms by sirens, modern communication technology using cell and smartphones can complement or even replace traditional alarming infrastructure.
Conclusion and way forward
- Early warning system: There is an urgent need to use multiple methods for better risk assessment and early warning. It is important to regularly monitor lake development and dynamics. This approach could help limit the damages caused by the glacial lake outburst events.
- Better land planning: Further development processes in these ecologically fragile areas should be guided by better land-use planning.
Value addition
Causes of GLOF
- Rapid slope movement into the lake
- Heavy rainfall/snowmelt
- Cascading processes (flood from a lake situated upstream)
- Earthquake
- Melting of ice incorporated in dam/forming the dam (including volcanic activity-triggered jökulhlaups)
- Blocking of subsurface outflow tunnels (applies only to lakes without surface outflow or lakes with a combination of surface and subsurface outflow)
Long-term dam degradation
Reference: Insights on India
Introduction
Geoengineering interventions are large-scale attempts to purposefully alter the climate system in order to offset the effects of global warming. Most geoengineering proposals can be divided into two types: solar radiation management (SRM) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR). Geoengineering offers the hope of temporarily reversing some aspects of global warming and allowing the natural climate to be substantially preserved whilst greenhouse gas emissions are brought under control and removed from the atmosphere by natural or artificial processes.
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Positives of geoengineering:
- As expected, the climate would begin to cool once geoengineering commences. This initial cooling phase, would provide relief, particularly for species that were unable to keep up with past warming.
- Also, birds and fish which may have moved in response to elevated temperatures in the past will possibly turn back.
- If solar geoengineering were ramped up slowly to half the rate of warming over the coming decades, then it seems likely it would reduce many climate risks. Solar geoengineering deployment can be ended without the impacts of a termination shock if it is gradually ramped down over decades.
- The climate models reveal that the large-scale action would indeed calm things down a bit and potentially reduce the number of North Atlantic cyclones.
Negatives of geoengineering:
- A recent study shows that rapid application, followed by abrupt termination of this temporary tech-fix can in fact accelerate climate change.
- The increase in temperature from the abrupt termination is so quick that most species, terrestrial or marine, may not be able to keep up with it and eventually perish.
- The increase in temperature is two to four times more rapid than climate change without geoengineering. This increase would be dangerous for biodiversity and ecosystems.
- Reptiles, mammals, fish and birds that have been moving at 1.7 km/year on average will now have to move faster than 10 km/year to remain in their preferred climatic zones. This raises serious concerns, especially for less-mobile animals like amphibians and corals.
- Not just species but entire ecosystems could collapse by suddenly hitting the stop button on geoengineering.
- For example, temperate grassland and savannahs, which are maintained by specific combinations of temperature and rainfall, may experience increasing rates of temperatures, but an opposing trend in rainfall, after 2070.
- Ineffectiveness
- The effectiveness of the techniques proposed may fall short of predictions.
- In ocean iron fertilization, for example, the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere may be much lower than predicted, as carbon taken up by plankton may be released back into the atmosphere from dead plankton, rather than being carried to the bottom of the sea and sequestered.
- Model results from a 2016 study, suggest that blooming algae could even accelerate Arctic warming.
- Moral hazard or risk compensation
- The existence of such techniques may reduce the political and social impetus to reduce carbon emissions
- Albedo modification strategies could rapidly cool the planet’s surface but pose environmental and other risksthat are not well understood and therefore should not be deployed at climate-altering scales.
- In the case of environmental risks, the offsetting of greenhouse gases by increasing the reflection of sunlight is not going to be perfect. Some people, potentially a small minority, will get less rainfall. There is concern about what particles might do to the ozone layer.
- The drop off of tropical storms in one area would actually lead to a spike in drought in parts of Africa, according to the data.
Way forward:
- The potential of natural systems as an effective solution for sequestering carbon dioxide has led to several efforts to scale nature-based solutions to mitigate climate change.
- These proliferating efforts, however, must take cognisance of the fact that these solutions are effective only when applied while protecting the already existing forest.
- Additionally, we must not run blindly after planting trees; instead, we must back reason with science.
- Trees should be planted where they belong, that too with native species, and in consultation with local communities.
Conclusion:
In any case in the meantime, two aspects are certain: under no scenario could climate engineering serve as a substitute to reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and it would be better to implement such technologies with more nuanced research.
Value addition
Some geoengineering techniques and its drawbacks:
Carbon capture and storage technologies:
- This carbon dioxide removal approach focuses on removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and locking them away.
- The process starts with the capture of generated CO2 which undergoes a compression process to form a dense fluid. This eases the transport and storage of the captured CO2.
- The dense fluid is transported via pipelines and then injected into an underground storage facility.
- Captured CO2 can also be used as a raw material in other industrial processes such as bicarbonates.
- The CCS has significant backing from the International Energy Agency and the IPCC.
- However, it still is hanging in uncertainty due to high upfront costs in the instalment of such plants.
- A growing number of corporations are pouring money into so-called engineered carbon removal techniques.
- However, these technologies are at a nascent stage and need an overhaul to be exploited.
- Carbon dioxide may be stored deep underground. Reservoir design faults, rock fissures, and tectonic processes may act to release the gas stored into the ocean or atmosphere leading to unintended consequences such as ocean acidification etc.
solar radiation modification:
- This process does not affect atmospheric greenhouse gases but aims to reflect the solar radiation coming to the earth.
- The science of the method is, however, largely model-based, and the impacts of deflecting the solar radiations could be unpredictable.
- Additionally, due to the thermal inertia of the climate system, removal of the radiation modification could result in the escalation of temperature very quickly, giving significantly less time to adapt.
- Another side effect of the radiation modification process could be natural vegetation.
- Since solar radiation is responsible for photosynthesis, sudden masking of solar radiation could significantly affect the process.
- While these questions remain unanswered, the futures of these technologies remain uncertain.
Answer the following questions in 250 words(15 marks each):
General Studies – 1
Reference: Live Mint , Insights on India
Introduction
Tropical Cyclone is any large system of winds that circulates about a centre of low atmospheric pressure in a counter-clockwise direction north of the Equator and in a clockwise direction to the south. Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt and are generally associated with rain or snow.
A “sudden” storm wreaked havoc in parts of Jalpaiguri district in northern West Bengal on Sunday, claiming four lives. Over 100 others have reportedly been injured in the storm.
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Process and conditions favorable for Cyclone Formation
- Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
- Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex:
- The Coriolis force is zero at the equator (no cyclones at equator because of zero Coriolis Force) but it increases with latitude. Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant enough to create a storm [cyclonic vortex].
- About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs between 10° and 20° latitude.
- Small variations in the vertical wind speed
- A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation
- Humidity Factor:
- High humidity (around 50 to 60 per cent) is required in the mid-troposphere, since the presence of moist air leads to the formation of cumulonimbus cloud.
- Such conditions exist over the equatorial doldrums, especially in western margins of oceans (this is because of east to west movement of ocean currents), which have great moisture, carrying capacity because the trade winds continuously replace the saturated air.
- Upper divergence above the sea level system:
- A well – developed divergence in the upper layers of the atmosphere is necessary so that the rising air currents within the cyclone continue to be pumped out and a low pressure maintained at the center.
- Low-level Disturbances:
- Low-level disturbance in the form of easterly wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) should pre-exist.
- Temperature contrast between air masses:
- Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet along inter-tropical front. Temperature contrasts between these air masses must exist when the ITCZ is farthest, from the equator.
- Thus, the convergence of these air masses of different temperatures and the resulting instability are the prerequisites for the origin and growth of violent tropical storms.
- Wind Shear:
- It is the differences between wind speeds at different heights
- Tropical cyclones develop when the wind is uniform.
- Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone formation processes are limited to latitude equator ward of the subtropical jet stream.
- In the temperate regions, wind shear is high due to westerlies and this inhibits convective cyclone formation.
Way forward
Short term measures:
- provide cyclone forecasting, tracking and warning systems
- Construction of cyclone shelters, cyclone resistant buildings, road links, bridges, canals, drains etc.
- Establishing Early Warning Dissemination System (EWDS), and Capacity building for coastal communities.
- Mock drills, and training of local population and police by NDRF and SDRF
- Plantations of strong rooted trees, canopies, mangroves and proper vegetation cover which act as first line of defence.
- Proper drainage system throughout the city to discharge the water as soon as possible to avoid flood like conditions
- Use of NAVIC and RESOURCESAT-2 for disseminating coastal information and helping in disaster management.
- Implementation of National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project
Long term measures:
- The National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) should be implemented with financial assistance from the World Bank
- The NDMA had come up with its National Guidelines of Management of Cyclones in 2008. The basic premise of these guidelines is that the mitigation has to be multi-sectoral.
- Developing Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) frameworks for addressing the sustainability and optimal utilisation of coastal resources as also cyclone impact minimisation plans.
- Ensuring cyclone resistant design standards are incorporated in the rural/ urban housing schemes in coastal areas
- Implementing coastal flood zoning, flood plain development and flood inundation management and regulatory plans.
- Coastal bio-shields spread, preservation and restoration/ regeneration plans.
- There is a need for private sector participation in designing and implementing policies, plans, and standards.
- Need of Disaster Management program to be inclusive including women, civil society, and academia.
Conclusion
Cyclone Disaster Management encompasses mitigation and preparedness measures for cyclones. Installing disaster-resilient power infrastructure in the coastal districts, providing concrete houses to poor and vulnerable households, and creating massive community awareness campaigns are essential.
General Studies – 2
Reference: The Hindu
Introduction
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), adopted by member countries of the United Nations in 2015, set a target of ending the epidemics of AIDS by 2030 (SDG 3.3). There has been much success achieved in the past 20 years in the battle against AIDS, but more needed to be done. Government has made significant efforts in order to raise awareness against AIDS, yet there is stigma against the survivors.
April 1, marks a very important day in the history of response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in India. Twenty years ago, on April 1, 2004, the Indian government had launched Free Antiretroviral Therapy (ART), for Persons living with HIV (PLHIV), a decision which has proven one of the successful and a key intervention in the fight against HIV/AIDS.
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Steps taken by India in reducing HIV incidence
- Healthcare infrastructure: Over 34,000 testing centres, more than1,900 anti-retroviral treatment centres and over 1,400 targeted interventions are currently running in the country, which impacts more than four million high-risk groups and target populations.
- National Strategic Plan 2017-24 and Mission“SAMPARK”, to trace those who are Left to Follow Up and are to be brought under ART services.
- NACP: Government launched a Central Sector Scheme – National AIDS Control Programme (NACP).
- India has successfully achieved the 6th Millennium Development Goal (MDG 6) of halting and reversing the HIV epidemic.
- Preventive measures:For preventing HIV/AIDS transmission from mother to child,
- Prevention from Parent to Child Transmission (PPTCT) programme have been integrated with the RCH programme.
- PALS (PPTCT ART Linkages Software) System has also been launched to maintain details of all HIV positive pregnant and breast-feeding women and their new-born babies.
- 90:90:90 strategy:Government would be implementing the 90:90:90 strategy as adopted by UNAIDS. It is a new HIV treatment that lays the groundwork to end the AIDS epidemic.
- HIV Sensitive social protection portalhas been launched to help officials and counsellors.
- India has extended support to the African countries in their fight against HIV-AID which reflects India’s global commitment.
Inequalities and stigma faced by HIV survivors
- Human rights issues: Stigma towards people living with HIV is widespread. The most affected groups are often marginalised, have little or no access to legal protection of their basic human rights. Steps must be taken to further reduce the stigma.
- Discrimination: Most often than not, people with HIV/AIDS are abandoned by their families and are forced to live in destitution, resulting in psychological devastation.
- Social and Economic: The main social and economic impacts for people living with HIV are loss of labour or education due to illness and increased expense of healthcare and transport.
- The compounding of these impacts often leads to increased levels of poverty, food insecurity and nutrition problems.
- Social boycott: There is denial, termination, discontinuation or unfair treatment with regard to employment, education, health care, residing or renting property, standing for public or private office, and insurance.
Way forward
- The need is to adopt a holistic approach to successfully combat discrimination against the infected and the vulnerable and create safe spaces for them.
- The next important step will be public education as acceptance of HIV/AIDS patients in society is still a challenge
- For ensuring ‘Jan Swasthya’, it’s important to collate efforts in a strategic manner for achieving the country’s goals by leaving no one behind as desired by Sustainable Development Goals
- HIV and AIDS (Prevention and Control) Act, 2017: The Act seeks to prevent and control the spread of HIV and AIDS.
- Prohibits discrimination against persons with HIV and AIDS.
- Provides for informed consent and confidentiality with regard to their treatment.
- Places obligations on establishments to safeguard their rights.
Reference: The Hindu , Insights on India
Introduction
Since 2011, India’s solar sector has grown at a compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 59%. From less than 10 MW in 2010, India has added significant solar PV capacity over the past decade, achieving over 50 GW by 2022. By 2030, India is targeting about 500 GW of renewable energy deployment, out of which 280 GW is expected from solar PV.
The new financial year has begun with the government finally bringing into effect a policy that will discourage solar power project developers from relying on imported panels. The major advantage is eligibility to compete for the government’s tenders for its flagship solar energy programmes. This includes the recently announced PM solar rooftop scheme.
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Current status of Solar Energy in India
- The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM), also known as the National Solar Mission (NSM),which commenced in January 2010, marked the first time the government focused on promoting and developing solar power in India.
- Under the scheme, the total installed capacity target was set as 20GW by 2022. In 2015, the target was revised to 100GW and in August 2021, the government set a solar target of 300GW by 2030.
- India currently ranks fifth after China, U.S., Japan and Germany in terms of installed solar power capacity.
- As of December 2021, the cumulative solar installed capacity of India is 55GW, which is roughly half the renewable energy (RE) capacity (excluding large hydro power) and 14% of the overall power generation capacity of India.
- Within the 55GW, grid-connected utility-scale projects contribute 77% and the rest comes from grid-connected rooftop and off-grid projects.
Scope & Opportunities
- India, being a tropical country is endowed with plenty of solar energy; hence, exploitation of solar energy becomes an important component of renewable energy sector
- India is endowed with vast solar energy potential.
- About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energyis incident over India’s land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sq. m per day
- Karnataka leads India’s list of states producing solar energy, with a total installed solar power capacity of about 7,100MW; followed by Telangana, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat
- Also, India is now the fourth-largest solar power producer in the world
- India’s Bhadla Solar Park is the largest solar power park in the world, which contribute to an operational capacity of 2245MW.
Government Initiatives towards promotion of Solar Energy
- National Solar Mission (NSM): The 100 GW solar ambition at the heart of the world’s largest renewable energy expansion programme
- International Solar Alliance:In pursuance to enhance Solar Energy production, India along with France launched the International Solar Alliance with the aim to promote solar energy in 121 member countries and to mobilize over $1 trillion of investment for the deployment of solar energy at affordable costs.
- 100 GW target: The target set by India, for installed solar energy capacity is 100 GW by March 2023 — 40 GW rooftop solar and 60 GW ground-mounted utility scale
- Under ‘One sun One World One Grid’, India seeks to replicate its global solar leadership by encouraging the phased development of a single globally connected solar electricity grid to leverage the multiple benefits (Low cost, Zero pollution) of solar energy.
- India has pledged to mobilize more than US $ 1000 billion of investments needed by 2030 for massive deployment of solar energy.
Challenges
- India’s solar energy development is largely built over imported products.
- India is facing challenge to balance Prioritising domestic goals and WTO commitments.
- India is dependent on Chinese imports for solar equipment, such as solar cells, panels, etc.
- The dumping of products is leading to profit erosion of local manufacturers.
- Land availability in India for solar plant is less due to high population density.
- China’s strong manufacturing base is giving stiff challenge to domestic manufacturer.
- India’s solar waste is estimated to be around 1.8 million by 2050, which needs to be tackled.
- There is little fiscal space for large public investment in renewables, while private investment in renewables at scale is just starting.
- The willingness of developed countries to make available adequate low-cost finance and required technologies remains uncertain.
Way Forward
- Strong financial measures are required to finance the solar projects.
- Innovative steps like green bonds, institutional loans and clean energy fund can play a crucial role.
- Promotion of research and development in renewable energy sector, especially in storage technology.
- Along with prioritizing designing microgrids, public policy attention is needed for developing battery technologies at scale for local applications.
- India needs a Solar Waste Management and Manufacturing Standards Policy.
Conclusion
India’s bid to play a leadership role in setting up a World Solar Bank is laudable. It could galvanize domestic efforts and give the country a global voice in the push for a clean planet.
General Studies – 3
Reference: en.wikipedia.org
Introduction
The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was enacted in 1986 with the objective of providing the protection and improvement of the environment. The Act is largely regarded as a response to the Bhopal gas tragedy. The Act was enacted by the Government of India in accordance with Article 253 of the Indian Constitution, which authorises the union government to establish legislation to give effect to foreign agreements made by the country.
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Major features of EPA
- The Central government is also empowered to:
- Plan and Execute a nation-wide programmefor the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution.
- Lay down standards for the quality of environmentin its various aspects.
- Lay down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutantsfrom various sources.
- The restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall/ shall not be carried out subject to certain safeguards.
- The Central Government may appoint officers under this Act for various purposes and entrust them with the corresponding powers and functions.
- The central government as per the Act has the power to direct:
- The closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process.
- The stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other service.
- Restriction on Pollutant Discharge: No individual or organization shall discharge/emit or permit to discharge/emit any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards.
- Compliance with Procedural Safeguards: No individual shall handle or shall be caused to handle any hazardous substance except in accordance with the procedure and without complying with the safeguards, as prescribed.
- Powers of Entry and Inspection: Any person empowered by the Central Government shall have a right to enter (with the assistance deemed necessary) at any place:
- For the inspection of compliance of any orders, notifications and directions given under the Act.
- For the purpose of examining (and if required seizing) any equipment, industrial plant, record, register, document or any other material object may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence punishable under this Act.
- Establishment of Environmental Laboratories: The Central Government, as per the Act, is entitled to:
- Establish environmental laboratories.
- Recognize any laboratory or institute as environmental laboratories to carry out the functions entrusted to such a laboratory.
- The Central Government is also entitled to make rules specifying the functions of environmental laboratories.
- Appointment of Government Analyst: A Government Analyst is appointed by the Central Government for the analyzing the samples of air, water, soil or other substance sent to a recognized environmental laboratory.
- Penalties for Offences: Non-compliance or Contravention to any of the provisions of the Act is considered as an offence.
- Any offences under the EPA are punishable with the imprisonment of up to five years or a fine up to one lakh rupees or both.
- Offences by Companies: If an offence under this Act is committed by a company, every person directly in charge of the company, at the time of the commitment of offence, is deemed to be guilty unless proven otherwise.
- Offences by Government Departments: If an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the Head of the Department (HoD) shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence unless proven otherwise.
- Any officer, other than HoD, if proven guilty, shall also be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
- Cognizance of offences: No Court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by:
- The Central Government or any authority on behalf of the former.
- A person who has approached the Courts after a 60-day notice has been furnished to the Central Government or the authority on its behalf.
Strengths of the Act
- It empowers the Central Government to establish authorities charged with the mandate of preventing environmental pollution in all its forms and to tackle specific environmental problems that are peculiar to different parts of the country.
- The Central Government shall have the power to take all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment in coordination with the State Governments.
- The Act is one of the most comprehensive legislations with a pretext to protection and improvement of the environment.
Limitations
- While the Centre is given broad powers, the state governments are given none, the former is prone to arbitrariness and abuse.
- The Act likewise makes no mention of public participation in environmental protection.
- Citizens must be involved in environmental preservation to counteract arbitrariness and promote understanding and empathy for the environment.
- The Act does not address current concepts of pollution such as noise, overcrowded transportation systems, and radiation waves, all of which contribute to the deterioration of the environment.
Conclusion
EPA was enacted with the primary purpose of conserving and enhancing the environment and associated issues. It empowers the Central Government to make all necessary efforts to avoid and control pollution, as well as to construct effective machinery to protect, improve, and regulate environmental pollution.
Reference: The Hindu , Insights on India
Introduction
The Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) was enacted in 2002 and it came into force in 2005. The chief objective of this legislation is to fight money laundering, that is, the process of converting black money into white. The act aims at Preventing money laundering, Combating the channelising of money into illegal activities and economic crimes, Providing for the confiscation of property derived from or involved in money laundering and Providing for any other matters connected with or incidental to the act of money laundering.
Critics argue that amendments to the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) stripped a person of his right under Article 20(3) (fundamental right against self-incrimination) of the Constitution.
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About PMLA
- It is a criminal law enacted to prevent money laundering and to provide for confiscation of property derived from, or involved in, money-laundering and related matters.
- It forms the core of the legal framework put in place by India to combat Money Laundering.
- The provisions of this act are applicable to all financial institutions, banks (Including RBI), mutual funds, insurance companies, and their financial intermediaries.
- PMLA (Amendment) Act, 2012:
- Adds the concept of ‘reporting entity’ which would include a banking company, financial institution, intermediary etc.
- PMLA, 2002 levied a fine up to Rs 5 lakh, but the amendment act has removed this upper limit.
- It has provided for provisional attachment and confiscation of property of any person involved in such activities.
Efficacy of PMLA
- Indian banks were reluctant to depart from their strict bank secrecy policies, and this further allowed individuals in India to launder money. The problem of money laundering in India is complicated further by Hawala’s ancient underground banking system.
- ED has been given the responsibility to enforce the provisions of the PMLA by conducting investigation to trace the assets derived from proceeds of crime, to provisionally attach the property and to ensure prosecution of the offenders and confiscation of the property by the Special court.
- ED has been given the responsibility to conduct investigation into suspected contraventions of foreign exchange laws and regulations, to adjudicate and impose penalties on those adjudged to have contravened the law.
Issues with PMLA
- PMLA is pulled into the investigation of even “ordinary” crimes and assets of genuine victims have been attached.
- PMLA was enacted in response to India’s global commitment (including the Vienna Convention) to combat the menace of money laundering. Instead, rights have been “cribbed, cabined and confined”.
- PMLA was a comprehensive penal statute to counter the threat of money laundering, specifically stemming from trade in narcotics.
- Currently, the offences in the schedule of the Act are extremely overbroad, and in several cases, have absolutely no relation to either narcotics or organised crime.
- Even the Enforcement Case Information Report (ECIR) – an equivalent of the FIR – is considered an “internal document” and not given to the accused.
- The ED treats itself as an exception to these principles and practises [of criminal procedure law] and chooses to register an ECIR on its own whims and fancies on its own file.
- There is also a lack of clarity about ED’s selection of cases to investigate. The initiation of an investigation by the ED has consequences which have the potential of curtailing the liberty of an individual.
Conclusion
The evolving threats of money laundering supported by the emerging technologies need to be addressed with the equally advanced Anti-Money Laundering mechanisms like big data and artificial intelligence. Both international and domestic stakeholders need to come together by strengthening data sharing mechanisms amongst them to effectively eliminate the problem of money laundering.
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