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NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is content that both meets demand of the question and at the same time gives you extra points in the form of background information.
General Studies – 1
Topic: Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues.
Difficulty level: Easy.
Reference: Page 53-55 – A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir (Spectrum Publishers)
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of Mission-2022 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
To analyse the reasons for the victory of English over the European rivals in India.
Directive word:
Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them as a whole in a summary.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context, as to how the third Carnatic paved way for the emergence of British Indian empire.
Body:
Draw a small map of pre-independent India showing the major centres of European powers in India.
In the first part, elaborate upon as to how among the European powers in India, French were the strongest as well as historical adversary of the English and tussle between them was witnessed over the three Carnatic wars.
Next, analyse the reasons as how the British were able to get better of their European Counter parts. Keep in mind as not make your just about Anglo-French Rivalry. This question is about English against all the European powers such as Portuguese, Danes, Dutch and the French.
Conclusion:
Sum up the answer, with the elimination of their European adversaries, the British now turned their attention to Indian Kings.
Introduction
The Anglo-French struggle lasted in India for nearly 20 years and this ultimately gave way to the establishment of British power in India. In the Carnatic region and Bengal, the Anglo-French rivalry was much evident. In Bengal, their hostility had been contained by the effective intervention of Alivardi Khan. But in the south, the French position was reinforced due to the arrival of a fleet from Mauritius and this resulted in an attack by French on the English position in Madras.
Body
In Europe, when Austria wanted to recover Silesia in 1756, the Seven Years War (1756-63) started. Britain and France were once again on opposite sides.
Course of War in India:
- In 1758, the French army under French General,Count Thomas Arthur de Lally captured the English forts of St. David and Vizianagaram in 1758.
- Now, the English became offensive and inflicted heavy losses on the French fleet under Admiral D’Acheat Masulipatnam.
Battle of Wandiwash:
- The decisive battle of the Third Carnatic War was won by the English on January 22, 1760 at Wandiwash (or Vandavasi) in Tamil Nadu.
- General Eyre Cooteof the English totally routed the French army under Count de Lally and took Marquis de Bussy as prisoner.
- Pondicherry was gallantly defended by Lally for eight months before he surrendered on January 16, 1761.
- With the loss of Pondicherry, Gingee and Mahe, the French power in India was reduced to its lowest.
- Lally, after being taken as prisoner of war at London, returned to France where he was imprisoned and executed in 1766.
Result and Significance:
- The Third Carnatic War proved decisive.
- The third war ended with the Treaty of Peace of Paris (1763)under which Pondicherry and Chandannagar were returned to France but they could only have trading activities in them.
- Although the treaty restored to the French their factories in India, the French political influence disappeared after the war.
- Thereafter, the French, like their Portuguese and Dutch counterparts in India, confined themselves to their small enclaves and to commerce.
- The English became thesupreme European power in the Indian subcontinent.
Causes for the English Success and the French Failure
- Lesser Governmental Control over British:The English Company was a private enterprise.
- This created a sense of enthusiasm and self-confidence among the people.
- With less governmental control over it, this company could take instant decisions when needed without waiting for the approval of the government.
- The French company, on the other hand, was a State concern.
- It was controlled and regulated by the French government and was hemmed in by government policies and delays in decision-making.
- Superior British Navy and Bigger Cities under Control:The English navy was superior to the French navy; it helped to cut off the vital sea link between the French possessions in India and France.
- The English held three important places, namely, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras whereas the French had only Pondicherry.
- British were Strong with Funds:The French subordinated their commercial interest to territorial ambition, which made the French company short of funds.
- In spite of their imperialistic motives, the British never neglected their commercial interests.
- The British always had the funds and the consequent sound financial condition to help them significantly in the wars against their rivals.
- Superior British Commanders:A major factor in the success of the English in India was the superiority of the commanders in the British camp.
- In comparison to the long list of leaders on the English side – Sir Eyre Coote, Major Stringer Lawrence, Robert Clive and many others, there was only Dupleix on the French side.
Conclusion
The victory at Wandiwash left the English East India Company with no European rival in India. Thus, they were ready to take over the rule of the entire Country. Significantly, in the Battle of Wandiwash, natives served in both the armies as sepoys. It makes one think that irrespective of which side won, there was an inevitability about the fall of India to European invaders.
Topic: Modern Indian history from about the middle of the eighteenth century until the present- significant events, personalities, issues.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: Chapter 5 – A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir (Spectrum Publishers)
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of Mission-2022 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
Write about the power dynamics of the various regional rulers to establish supremacy among themselves in the backdrop of the advent of British rule in India
Directive word:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you must debate on paper by going through the details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You must give reasons for both for and against arguments.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Give an account of major political powers in middle of Eighteenth Century India.
Body:
Draw a political map of India representing major Indian powers including establishments of British EIC.
Write about the major leaders such as Marathas, Nizams, Mysore Kingdom, Punjab, Mughals, Nawabs of Awadh and their motive for an expansionist policy (resources, trade etc), reasons for increasing insecurity of the local rulers against the EIC, and their journey to overthrow the British, the various alliances and counter alliances formed during this power struggle and desire establish political Supremacy. Mention important wars and battles fought thereof.
Also, mention the rising power of British in terms of their arsenal, their meddling with internal politics of the region, clearly overstepping their alleged mandate of trade related functions.
Conclusion:
Comment on the outcome of the power struggle.
Introduction
During the first half of the eighteenth century, with Aurangzeb’s misguided policies which weakened the stable Mughal polity and failure of later Mughals like Muhammad Shah’s rule from 1719 to 1748 reshaped the boundaries of the Mughal Empire by the emergence of a number of independent kingdoms.
The East India Company, which started initially as a trading company, had, by 1773, acquired territorial control over Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Bombay. The Nawab of Awadh and Carnatic were their dependents.
Body
Establishment of large number of independent and semi-independent or autonomous states of three types occurred as follows:
- Successor States Hyderabad, Bengal and Awadh were the three cases where provincial governors under the Mughals set up independent states.
- The second group of regional states were the ‘new states’ or ‘insurgent states’ set up by rebels against the Mughals-the Marathas, Sikhs, Jats and Afghans.
- The independent states like Mysore, the Rajput states and Kerala fall in this category.
However, after 1765 they had to face stiff opposition from the Marathas, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and the Sikhs. The East India Company had to subjugate these powers in order to be paramount in India.
Struggle between colonial power and Indian states:
- Conflict between English and Nawabs of Bengal
- Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Robert Clive’s victory over Siraj-ud-daula laid the territorial foundation of British rule in India.
- Battle of Buxar (1764): Clive’s victory over the combined armies of Nawab of Bengal, Nawab of Awadh and the Mughal Emperor at Buxar laid the real foundation of the English power.
- British Conquest of Mysore
- First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69); Treaty of Madras
- Second Anglo-Mysore War (1779-1784); Treaty of Mangalore
- Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92); Treaty of Srirangapattanam
- Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799); Mysore is conquered by British forces
- Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy
- First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82); Treaty of Surat (1775), Treaty of Purandhar (1776), and Treaty of Salbai (1782)
- Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05); Treaty of Bassein, 1802
- Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)
Struggle among Indian powers
- Marathas frequently allied with the British against South Indian states such as Hyderabad and Mysore, which were both closer to the French.
- After 1761, Maratha state became more of a confederacy than an empire, as its successful generals carved out new territories for themselves, and established dynasties, such as the Holkars and Sindhias, in addition to the peshwas, the title of the hereditary prime ministers who had become the de facto rulers of the empire during the course of the 18th century.
- Nizams and Marathas allied with the British against Hyder Ali in the Anglo- Maratha wars
Indeed, Indian subcontinent in the middle of the eighteenth century was marked with political fragmentation and regional instability.
Conclusion
The ruler of Delhi was no longer the ‘de-facto’ ruler of India. For a large number of Indians, ‘right to live’ transformed into ‘struggle for survival’, and the ‘freedom of trade’ transformed into ‘ransom and robbery’- all because of the bickering among regional rulers. All these created ripe opportunities for the British to takeover India and indulge in large scale ‘drain of wealth’.
General Studies – 2
Topic: Effect of policies and politics of developed and developing countries on India’s interests, Indian diaspora.
Difficulty level: Tough.
Reference: The Hindu
Why the question:
Ever since Independence, India’s fate has been closely tied to the rest of the world. But a constantly evolving international environment presented India not just with opportunities but numerous challenges. This article captures the same in the past 75 years.
Key Demand of the question:
To trace India’s development and power dynamics – the opportunities and challenges – with respect to its neighbours as well as global powers.
Directive word:
Comment– here we must express our knowledge and understanding of the issue and form an overall opinion thereupon.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context as to how India’s global aspirations have evolved over the years.
Body:
In the first part, in brief, trace the historical developments India’s global dynamics since independence.
Next, write about how development, regional security, a balance of power, and the shaping of international consensus have been our cornerstones of foreign policy over the years. Substantiate with examples from the past and present.
In the final part, address the challenges it faces such as the ravages of COVID-19 and growing international competition etc also underscore the difficulties that India is facing currently.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward.
Introduction
Ever since Independence, India’s fate has been closely tied to the rest of the world. It was through its global interactions that India defined itself throughout its history as an independent nation. In some sense, it had no choice. A large, newly independent, impoverished, and impossibly diverse country required active engagement with a variety of partners for its survival, security, and development. Thus, a mixed bag of both opportunities and challenges have been gained and faced by India respectively.
Body
Challenges faced:
- Border issues:
- India’s borders were initially poorly demarcatedand it has had to compete with two nuclear-armed neighbours for territory.
- India itself was poorly integratedand the resulting sources of domestic insecurity benefited from support from neighbouring countries.
- Wars with neighbours:
- India during this phase went to war with the neighbouring countries of Pakistan (1947) and China (1962).
- The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 was fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. This brought the Kashmir issue into the international relations domain.
- The disputed Himalayan border was the main cause of the Sino-Indian War in 1962.
- TheIndo-Pakistani War of 1965 began following Pakistan’s Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on Pakistan.
- India provided substantial diplomatic, economic and military support to Bangladeshi nationalists. The resulting 1971 Indo-Pak war saw India emerging as the victor and the formation of independent Bangladesh.
- India and Pakistan have fought intermittently since 1984 over control of the Siachen Glacier.
- Beginning in 2013, China began to test India on the border and undermine Indian interests in South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region.
- With further stand-offs at Doklam and Ladakh between 2017 and 2021, India opted to boycott China’s Belt and Road Initiative, raise barriers to Chinese investment.
- External Security threats:
- This period saw security challenges come closer to home: the peaceful nuclear explosion, the annexation of Sikkim, competition with Pakistan over Siachen, a stand-off with China, an intervention in Sri Lanka, and a countercoup in the Maldives.
- China tested their nuclear weapons in 1964 which posed an imminent threat to India following the 1962 war.
- Following the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord of 1987, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War through the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka in a peacekeeping role.
- India’s intervention in the 1988 attempted coup in the Maldives became necessary to protect its own interests in India’s backyard of the Indian Ocean region. India intervened with “Operation Cactus”.
- Internal Security Challenges:
- Domestic security challenges also assumed an external angle, whether in Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, or the North-east.
- Inconclusive plans and deals:
- Some efforts at resetting relations with the United States, liberalising the economy, and pursuing the nuclear option were made, but the outcomes were inconclusive.
- Economic challenges:
- The balance of payments crisis in the post-Cold War era resulted in India adopting a range of reforms to liberalise the economy.
Opportunities gained:
- Relations with the US and Russia:
- India’s first leaders opted for flexible and friendly relations with both the U.S. and the Soviet Union and their respective allies.
- The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation and the Bangladesh war altered India’s relations with both superpowers and shifted the dynamics of the rivalry with Pakistan.
- Role in global politics:
- India also played an activist role in the decolonising world, extending diplomatic and in some cases, security assistance to independence movements in Asia and Africa and sending military missions to Korea and the Congo.
- Economic progress:
- There were also important economic strides made, including the Green Revolution, undertaken with considerable foreign technical and financial assistance.
- Post LPG reforms, India also witnessed a rapid growth of the Indian economy, fuelled by a boom in information and communication technology companies, the services sector, and a rising consumer market.
- Independent policy:
- India often found itself at odds with the great powers when it felt its greater interests were threatened, as on intervention in Bangladesh, nuclear non-proliferation, or trade.
- Strengthening of Foreign relations:
- the advent of the Look East Policy and relations with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
- It also saw the establishment of diplomatic ties with Israel.
- The signing of a border peace and tranquillity agreement with China took place in the same period.
- The global financial crisis in 2008-09 presaged a slight change in approach, whereby India sought to partner with China and other rising powers on institutional reform, financial lending, climate change, and sovereignty.
- Security relations and understandings with the U.S. and its allies (Japan, France, Australia) accelerated after 2014.
- A greater emphasis on neighbourhood connectivity was adopted.
- Nuclear Strength:
- The Atal Bihari Vajpayee government built further upon these developments, conducting a series of tests in 1998, negotiating a return to normal relations with most major powers within two years.
- After 2004, the Manmohan Singh government worked extensively to resolve the outstanding question of India’s nuclear status.
- By eliminating barriers to ‘dual use’ technologies and equipment, as well as a host of associated export controls, India had the opportunity to establish robust defence relations with the U.S. and its allies.
Conclusion
Thus, Ever since independence, India’s fate has been closely tied to the rest of the world. The constantly evolving international environment presented India not just with opportunities but numerous challenges.
India’s objectives have been broadly consistent: development, regional security, a balance of power, and the shaping of international consensus to be more amenable to Indian interests. At the same time, India’s means and the international landscape have changed, as have domestic political factors.
General Studies – 3
Topic: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment.
Difficulty level: Easy
Reference: Live Mint , Chapter 21: Environment by Shankar IAS (6th Edition)
Why the question:
Intergovernmental panel’s latest report on the crisis served us a warning on how badly off target we are to keep our planet from going past its danger mark. This has given currency to explore radical measures.
Key Demand of the question:
To analyse if Geo-engineering could be a viable option to overcome the climate crisis.
Directive word:
Critically analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary. When ‘critically’ is suffixed or prefixed to a directive, one needs to look at the good and bad of the topic and give a fair judgement.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Begin the answer by defining geo-engineering.
Body:
You can use a bubble diagram to show the various modes of geo-engineering such as Shoot Mirrors into Space (Solar Sunscreen), Copy a Volcano, Build Fake Trees etc.
In the first part of the body, write about how the above strategies work and will be beneficial for the planet above and over existing mitigation strategies to tide over the climate crisis. Clearly outline as to why it may be needed.
In the next part, mention about the major drawbacks, impediments and concerns regarding the implementation of the above strategies
Conclusion:
End your answer that existing strategies should be implemented on a war footing, but alternative ideas must also be considered, planned and studied about just in case of a climate emergency.
Introduction
Geoengineering interventions are large-scale attempts to purposefully alter the climate system in order to offset the effects of global warming. Most geoengineering proposals can be divided into two types: solar radiation management (SRM) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR).
Climate engineering offers the hope of temporarily reversing some aspects of global warming and allowing the natural climate to be substantially preserved whilst greenhouse gas emissions are brought under control and removed from the atmosphere by natural or artificial processes. One such technology is inspired by volcanoes that entails spewing sulphate aerosols into the upper atmosphere to deflect sunlight and artificially cool the planet.
Body:
Negatives of geoengineering:
- A recent study shows that rapid application, followed by abrupt termination of this temporary tech-fix can in fact accelerate climate change.
- The increase in temperature from the abrupt termination is so quick that most species, terrestrial or marine, may not be able to keep up with it and eventually perish.
- The increase in temperature is two to four times more rapid than climate change without geoengineering. This increase would be dangerous for biodiversity and ecosystems.
- Reptiles, mammals, fish and birds that have been moving at 1.7 km/year on average will now have to move faster than 10 km/year to remain in their preferred climatic zones. This raises serious concerns, especially for less-mobile animals like amphibians and corals.
- Not just species but entire ecosystems could collapse by suddenly hitting the stop button on geoengineering.
- For example, temperate grassland and savannahs, which are maintained by specific combinations of temperature and rainfall, may experience increasing rates of temperatures, but an opposing trend in rainfall, after 2070.
- Ineffectiveness
- The effectiveness of the techniques proposed may fall short of predictions.
- In ocean iron fertilization, for example, the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the atmosphere may be much lower than predicted, as carbon taken up by plankton may be released back into the atmosphere from dead plankton, rather than being carried to the bottom of the sea and sequestered.
- Model results from a 2016 study, suggest that blooming algae could even accelerate Arctic warming.
- Moral hazard or risk compensation
- The existence of such techniques may reduce the political and social impetus to reduce carbon emissions
- Albedo modification strategies could rapidly cool the planet’s surface but pose environmental and other risksthat are not well understood and therefore should not be deployed at climate-altering scales.
- In the case of environmental risks, the offsetting of greenhouse gases by increasing the reflection of sunlight is not going to be perfect. Some people, potentially a small minority, will get less rainfall. There is concern about what particles might do to the ozone layer.
- The drop off of tropical storms in one area would actually lead to a spike in drought in parts of Africa, according to the data.
Positives of geoengineering:
- As expected, the climate would begin to cool once geoengineering commences. This initial cooling phase, would provide relief, particularly for species that were unable to keep up with past warming.
- Also, birds and fish which may have moved in response to elevated temperatures in the past will possibly turn back.
- If solar geoengineering were ramped up slowly to half the rate of warming over the coming decades, then it seems likely it would reduce many climate risks. Solar geoengineering deployment can be ended without the impacts of a termination shock if it is gradually ramped down over decades.
- The climate models reveal that the large-scale action would indeed calm things down a bit and potentially reduce the number of North Atlantic cyclones.
Some geoengineering techniques and its drawbacks:
carbon capture and storage technologies:
- This carbon dioxide removal approach focuses on removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and locking them away.
- The process starts with the capture of generated CO2 which undergoes a compression process to form a dense fluid. This eases the transport and storage of the captured CO2.
- The dense fluid is transported via pipelines and then injected into an underground storage facility.
- Captured CO2 can also be used as a raw material in other industrial processes such as bicarbonates.
- The CCS has significant backing from the International Energy Agency and the IPCC.
- However, it still is hanging in uncertainty due to high upfront costs in the instalment of such plants.
- A growing number of corporations are pouring money into so-called engineered carbon removal techniques.
- However, these technologies are at a nascent stage and need an overhaul to be exploited.
- Carbon dioxide may be stored deep underground. Reservoir design faults, rock fissures, and tectonic processes may act to release the gas stored into the ocean or atmosphere leading to unintended consequences such as ocean acidification etc.
solar radiation modification:
- This process does not affect atmospheric greenhouse gases but aims to reflect the solar radiation coming to the earth.
- The science of the method is, however, largely model-based, and the impacts of deflecting the solar radiations could be unpredictable.
- Additionally, due to the thermal inertia of the climate system, removal of the radiation modification could result in the escalation of temperature very quickly, giving significantly less time to adapt.
- Another side effect of the radiation modification process could be natural vegetation.
- Since solar radiation is responsible for photosynthesis, sudden masking of solar radiation could significantly affect the process.
- While these questions remain unanswered, the futures of these technologies remain uncertain.
Way forward:
- The potential of natural systems as an effective solution for sequestering carbon dioxide has led to several efforts to scale nature-based solutions to mitigate climate change.
- These proliferating efforts, however, must take cognisance of the fact that these solutions are effective only when applied while protecting the already existing forest.
- Additionally, we must not run blindly after planting trees; instead, we must back reason with science.
- Trees should be planted where they belong, that too with native species, and in consultation with local communities.
Conclusion:
In any case in the meantime, two aspects are certain: under no scenario could climate engineering serve as a substitute to reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and it would be better to implement such technologies with more nuanced research.
Topic: Various Security forces and agencies and their mandate.
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: Live Mint
Why the question:
The Narendra Modi government’s 2019 decision to appoint a chief of defence staff (CDS) and assign to him the task of restructuring India’s armed forces into integrated theatre commands is the most significant defence reform in decades. But its implementation has stirred up a controversy.
Key Demand of the question:
To write about the benefits of integrated theatre commands and how it should be achieved whilst maximising its efficacy and minimising conflicts.
Directive word:
Substantiate – When you are asked to Substantiate, you must pass a sound judgement about the truth of the given statement in the question or the topic based on evidence. You must appraise the worth of the statement in question using suitable case studies or/ and examples.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start by writing about integrated theatre commands and how it is different from the existing structure of the armed forces.
Body:
In the first part, address the need of the integrated theatre commands with old threats such as Pakistan, Rapid rise of China, recent turmoil in Afghanistan as well as unconventional threats like Cyberthreats.
Write about the structuring of the integrated theatre command and theatres where it will be operationalised. Mention about Chain of command, joint war-fighting doctrine, Modernization, Joint-Operability among the various forces.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a way forward and that this reform that was long overdue as it was suggested by Kargil Review committee way back in 2000.
Introduction
The appointment of the Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) and the creation of the Department of Military Affairs (DMA) are momentous steps towards the integration and advancement of defence forces.
Body
Integrated Theatre Command:
- An integrated theatre commandenvisages a unified command of the three Services, under a single commander, for geographical theatres (areas) that are of strategic and security concern.
- The commander of such a force will be able to bear all resourcesat his disposal — from the Army, the Indian Air Force, and the Navy — with seamless efficacy.
- The integrated theatre commander will not be answerableto individual Services.
- Integration and jointness of the three forces will avoid duplication of resources.The resources available under each service will be available to other services too.
- The Shekatkar committee(in 2015) had recommended the creation of 3 integrated theatre commands — northern for the China border, western for the Pakistan border, and southern for the maritime role.
Advantages of Integration:
- The integrated theatre commanderwill not be answerable to individual Services, and will be free to train, equip and exercise his command to make it a cohesive fighting force capable of achieving designated goals.
- The logistic resources required to support its operations will also be placed at the disposal of the theatre commanderso that it does not have to look for anything when operations are ongoing.
- This isin contrast to the model of service-specific commands which India currently has, wherein the Army, Air Force and Navy all have their own commands all over the country. In case of war, each Service Chief is expected to control the operations of his Service through individual commands, while they operate jointly.
Challenges with the current structure:
- There has been no occasion,during actual warfare, when the three services have not operated with commendable cooperation.
- Faraway land war and medium to high intensity wars are a distant possibility.
- With increased communication networks,interaction between three organizations is easy, they can come on board, can plan without much consideration of spatial distance, so there is no need for a new organisation.
- Domain knowledge of the integrated force commander is likely to be limitedin respect of the other two Services components under his command, thereby limiting his ability to employ them in the most suitable manner and at the appropriate time.
- None of the present 17 commands is co-located at the same station, nor are their areas of operational responsibility contiguous.
- In addition, there are 2 tri-service commands Strategic Forces Command (SFC)and Andaman and Nicobar Command (ANC), which is headed by rotation by officers from the 3 Services.
- The SFC (Strategic Forces Command),looks after the delivery and operational control of the country’s nuclear assets. It was created in 2003, but because it has no specific geographic responsibility and a designated role, it is not an integrated theatre command but an integrated functional command.
- There has been a demand for other integrated functional commands, such as the cyber, aerospace and Special Operations commands,but the government is yet to approve any.
Way forward
- Given that actors, threats and the environment will change in uncertain ways, the structure must be simple, flexible and adaptable.
- the ideal solution for India is to have four geography-based theatres—Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western—each equipped to use land, sea, air, space and cyber power to handle all threats in their areas.
- The chain of command should run from the Cabinet Committee on Security, through the defence minister, directly to the theatre commander, with the CDS and defence secretary in the loop but outside the chain. Like in the United States, this entire structure should be covered by parliamentary statute, not merely by executive decisions.
Conclusion
The meaning of networked warfare has changed from equipping armed forces with data networks to reorganizing the forces themselves into networked units. Instead of forever playing catch-up, India has a unique opportunity to leapfrog into building not only integrated, but networked forces.
General Studies – 4
Topic: Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and world.
6. Explain the moral philosophy of Eudaimonism with examples. (150 words)
Difficulty level: Moderate.
Reference: newworldencyclopedia.org
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 4 and part of ‘Philosophical Mondays’ in Mission-2022 Secure.
Key Demand of the question:
Detailed description of the concept of Eudaimonism, its proponents, few examples and its applicability.
Directive word:
Explain – Clarify the topic by giving a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start by defining Eudaimonism
Body:
Detailed description of the association of the concept with Virtue ethics, Egoism and ethical Individualism. Contrast this concept to hedonism and give examples such as Volunteering for community action etc, which gives personal satisfaction as well as fulfils man’s potential. Explain with examples.
Conclusion:
Give criticism of Eudaimonism by Kant for a balanced view on the topic.
Introduction
Eudaimonism is a moral philosophy that defines right action as that which leads to the “well-being” of the individual, thus holding “well-being” as having essential value. It makes up part of the system of Virtue Ethics propounded by the ancient Greek philosophers, in which a lifetime of practicing the virtues in one’s everyday activities, subject to the exercise of practical wisdom to resolve any conflicts or dilemmas which might arise, will allow the individual to flourish and live the good life
The term “eudaimonia” is a classical Greek word, commonly translated as “happiness”, but perhaps better described as “well-being” or “human flourishing” or “good life”. More literally it means “having a good guardian spirit”.
Body:
The philosophy of Eudaimonia:
- Eudaimonia as the ultimate goal is an objective, not a subjective, state, and it characterizes the well-lived life, irrespective of the emotional stateof the person experiencing it.
- In more general terms, Eudaimonism can be thought of as any theory that puts personal happinessand the complete life of the individual at the centre of ethical concern. It can therefore be associated with ethical Individualism and Egoism.
- It is the condition of human flourishing or of living well. The conventional English translation of the ancient Greek term, “happiness,” is unfortunate because eudaimonia, as Aristotle and most other ancient philosophers understood it, does not consist of a state of mind or a feeling of pleasure or contentment, as “happiness” (as it is commonly used) implies.
- For Aristotle, a thing is best understood by looking at its end, purpose, or goal. For example, the purpose of a knife is to cut, and it is by seeing this that one best understands what a knife is; the goal of medicine is good health, and it is by seeing this that one best understands what medicine is, or should be.
- For Aristotle, eudaimonia is the highest human good, the only human good that is desirable for its own sake (as an end in itself) rather than for the sake of something else (as a means toward some other end).
- According to Aristotle, every living or human-made thing, including its parts, has a unique or characteristic function or activity that distinguishes it from all other things.
- It follows that eudaimonia consists of the good performance of the characteristic function of human beings, whatever that may be, and human virtue or excellence is that combination of traits or qualities that enables humans to perform that function well.
- For instance, if you’re a parent, you should excel at raising your children; if you’re a doctor, you should excel at healing people; and if you’re a philosopher, you should excel at gaining knowledge and wisdom, and teaching. Of course, each person plays many roles life, and it’s by excelling in all of them that one achieves Eudaimonia.
- Another example for eudaemonia would be Mother Teresa, who gave her heart and soul for the welfare of the lepers and destitute in India.
Relevance in contemporary times:
- By living our life to the full according to our essential nature as rational beings, we are bound to flourish, that is, to develop and express our full human potential, regardless of the ebb and flow of our good or bad fortune.
- To put this in modern terms, if we develop our thinking skills, if we guard against lies and self-deception, if we train and master our emotions, we will, over the years, make better and better choices, do more and more meaningful things, and derive ever-increasing satisfaction from all that we have become and all that we have achieved, and are yet able to achieve.
Conclusion
Thus, it can be summed up that a life of eudaimonia is a life of striving. It’s a life of pushing yourself to your limits, and finding success. A eudemonistic life will be full of the happiness that comes from achieving something really difficult, rather than just having it handed to you.
Extra information:
Difference between Hedonia (Extreme happiness) and Eudaimonia:
Hedonia, in short, is about:
- pleasure, enjoyment, and satisfaction;
- and the absence of distress.
Eudaimonia is more complex in its nature, it´s about:
- authenticity: clarifying one’s true self and deep values, staying connected with them, and acting in accord with them;
- meaning: understanding a bigger picture, relating to it, and contributing to it. This may include broader aspects of one´s life or identity, a purpose, the long term, the community, society, even the entire ecosystem;
- excellence: striving for higher quality and higher standards in one’s behavior, performance, accomplishments, and ethics;
- personal growth: self-actualization, fulfilling one’s potential and pursuing personal goals; growth, seeking challenges; and maturing as a human being.
Hedonia is associated with:
- physical and emotional needs;
- desire;
- what feels good;
- taking, for me, now;
- ease;
- rights;
- pleasure;
- self-nourishing and self-care; taking care of one’s own needs and desires, typically in the present or near future; reaching personal release and peace, replenishment; energy and joy.
Eudaimonia is associated with:
- cognitive values and ideals
- care;
- what feels right;
- giving, building, something broader, the long-term;
- effort;
- responsibilities;
- elevation;
- cultivating; giving of oneself, investing in a larger aspect of the self, a long-term project, or the surrounding word; quality, rightness, context, the welfare of others.
Topic: Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and world.
Difficulty level: Tough.
Reference: plato.stanford.edu
Why the question:
Key Demand of the question: Description of Aristotle’s Golden mean between virtues and vices and how this concept is still applicable to the present society.
Directive word:
Comment– here we must express our knowledge and understanding of the issue and form an overall opinion thereupon.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Start with a brief of Aristotelian Mean theory.
Body:
Illustrate with examples, few Ethical virtues when mean but that are vices when they are excess/deficient. Mention few examples of these and illustrate them a flow chart showing virtues and vices.
Mention that this mean is situational and is dependent on the individual and their ethical backdrop and it is vital to finding a moderate position between two extremes leading to a moral behaviour.
State whether this concept is applicable in the current times by stating few scenarios.
Conclusion:
Highlight the importance of moderation being preached by Aristotle’s Mean theory, Buddha’s middle path etc.
Introduction
The “Doctrine of Mean” or “Golden mean” or “middle way” is an ancient concept described in various traditions. The concept was often discussed within ethical contexts and considered as a virtue. In Western philosophy, Aristotle in particular elaborated the concept in his Nicomachean Ethics. The “golden mean” is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency.
This is not a strict rule, as Aristotle himself points out: there is no precise formula by which we can determine exactly where this mean lies, largely because the mean will vary for different people.
Body:
The golden mean represents a balance between extremes, i.e., vices.
For example, Courage or Bravery is a good example of this philosophy. Excess of it is considered as rash or overconfident, while its deficiency is known as cowardice. Another example on the similar lines is that of generosity, which is a mean. Excess of it will be wastefulness, whereas, deficiency will be stinginess.
VICE OF DEFICIENCY MEAN VICE OF EXCESS
COWARDICE COURAGE RASHNESS
Other virtues may be any of the following: Determination, Modesty, Bravery, Excellence, and Trust.
This doesn’t mean that the golden mean is the exact arithmetical middle between extremes, but that the middle depends on the situation. There is no universal middle that would apply to every situation.
Consider, for example, if a person was cheated out of his life savings, then, the person would be angry, and it would be very close towards being excessive, an extreme. As opposed to, say, a minor accidental mishap, which might not get the tempers rising, and the lack of anger would inch towards indifference, another extreme. In both cases, however, both the reactions are considered ‘mean’, due to the varying level of involvements.
The golden mean applies only for virtues, not vices.
The importance of the golden mean is that it re-affirms the balance needed in life. Today’s modern man usually succumbs in the extreme of excess, which can be seen in the uncontrollable accumulation of material wealth, food, alcohol, drugs, but he can descend into deficiency as well, like inadequate attention to education, healthy sport activities, intellectual pursuits, etc.
Even Buddha summarized the Golden Mean as the Middle Way, a moderate path between extreme self-denial and sensual, materialistic self-indulgence.
Relevance in Contemporary world:
- The societies across the globe are facing serious issues ranging from moral and cultural degradationto religious conflicts, corruption, lack of food and water security, lack of economic opportunity and employment, environmental degradations It is in these times that the values like compassion, solidarity and peace become even more relevant.
- The principle of the golden mean can legitimately be applied to the questions associated with practical action in which it is important to avoid dangerous extremes.
- Referring the principle of the golden mean to the modern questions of socio-political and economic thought enables us to indicate ethically desirable attitudes, such as patriotism (understood as a well-ordered love of one’s own homeland) which allows us to overcome the extremes of cosmopolitanism and nationalism.
- It also points to systemic solutions, such as social solidarity, which avoid the dangers of an overprotective, “nanny” state on the one hand, and on the other, the reduction of the state’s role to that of a “night-watchman” as favoured by an extreme libertarianism.
- The adoption of the “golden mean” by avoiding extreme positions leads to realizing the truth which further leads to avoiding conflict, reconciliation of different viewpoints, and achieving consensus.
Conclusion:
The people in modern society need to overcome their pride and arrogance and look in nature for guidance, because we all depend on it. Staring into the sky and imagining ourselves in heaven will not accomplish anything; it is better instead to accept our role in the world and appreciate the beauty of life, and death, which gives meaning to it.
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